Comprehensive Study Notes on Peruvian Ecoregions and Medieval History
Definition and Classification of Ecoregions
An ecoregion is defined as a geographical area characterized by having the same climate, soil, hydrological conditions, flora, and fauna. Peru is a remarkably diverse country, containing of the ecosystems found on the entire planet. The Peruvian researcher Antonio Brack was the individual who first proposed the classification of eleven distinct ecoregions within the country. These ecoregions are categorized into marine, coastal, Andean, and Amazonian zones.
Marine and Coastal Ecoregions
The Mar Tropical (Tropical Sea) is located off the northern coast of Peru, specifically in the regions of Piura and Tumbes. This ecoregion is characterized by its warm waters, which originate cloudiness and rainfall, leading to zones with abundant vegetation. The temperature in this sea typically varies between and . It serves as a habitat for various marine species, including sharks, bonito, turtles, and crustaceans such as lobsters and crabs. Notably, it is also home to the famous Tumbes crocodile.
The Mar Fro (Cold Sea) extends along the beaches of nearly the entire Peruvian coast, from Tacna in the south to Parias in Piura in the north. Its waters are cold as a result of the Humboldt Current. The environmental temperature in this region oscillates between and . This ecoregion is incredibly rich in biodiversity due to the abundance of plankton and algae, earning it the nickname "plankton soup." Principal marine species inhabiting the cold sea include sea lions (lobos marinos), cetaceans, anchovies (anchovetas), white turtles, and Humboldt penguins.
The Desierto del Pacfico (Pacific Desert) consists of a desert strip covering the totality of the Peruvian coast, stretching from Tacna in the south to Piura in the north. The climate in this ecoregion is characterized by hot, dry summers and cold, humid winters. Temperatures range from a minimum of to a maximum of . While the geography offers few species of flora and fauna overall, one can find bats, herons (garzas), and hawks (aguiluchos).
The Bosque Seco Ecuatorial (Equatorial Dry Forest) is located in the northern coastal deserts, specifically within the departments of Lambayeque, Piura, and Tumbes. It is inhabited by plant species adapted to high temperatures, such as algarrobos and ceibos. Animal species in this region include the coastal fox (zorro costeo), the gray deer (venado gris), and the anteater (oso hormiguero). During the day, temperatures can reach .
The Bosque Tropical del Pacfico (Pacific Tropical Forest) covers a very reduced area specifically in the department of Tumbes. Despite its proximity to the sea and the equatorial line, the geography is heavily forested, featuring abundant biodiversity in both flora and fauna. Inhabitants include howler monkeys (monos aulladores), crocodiles, jaguars, armadillos, rabbits, and boas. The climate is hot and humid, with an average temperature of approximately .
The Ecoregions of the Andes and the Jungle
The Sierra (Andean) region is highly rugged due to the presence of the Andes Mountain Range, which determines climatic variations and the distribution of flora and fauna. The principal economic activities in this region are agriculture, livestock, mining, and tourism. Key Andean ecoregions include the P ramo, the Serrana Esteparia, and the Puna.
The Serrana Esteparia is comprised of valleys, mountains, rivers, and canyons with a dry climate. Notable fauna includes the puma, deer (venado), and mountain cat (gato monts), while the flora is highlighted by the Cantuta flower. Major tourist attractions in this geography include the Majes Valley, the Colca Canyon, and the Mantaro Valley.
The Puna is located in the Andes of Peru at altitudes exceeding . The climate is very cold, and at night, temperatures can drop below . This region is the habitat for ichu grass, as well as llamas, alpacas, and vicuas. Principal tourist attractions include the Cordillera Blanca in Ancash, Lake Titicaca in Puno, and the Mountain of Seven Colors in Cusco.
The P ramo ecoregion is located in the highlands of Piura and Cajamarca. Despite the low temperatures, there are plants and animals specifically adapted to this geography, most notably the mountain tapir (tapir de montaa), the Andean partridge (perdiz de los andes), and the dwarf deer (venado enano). Key attractions include regional conservation areas like the forests of El Chaupe, Cuna, and Chinchiquilla.
The Selva Alta (High Jungle) covers the tropical mountainous zone of the Peruvian Amazon on the eastern part of the Andes range. Its primary characteristic is the presence of humid forests resulting from intense annual rainfall. Species inhabiting this area include the Gallito de las Rocas (Andean Cock-of-the-rock), the spectacled bear (oso de anteojos), and giant begonias. Major tourist attractions include the citadel of Machu Picchu.
The Selva Baja (Low Jungle) or Omagua region extends across the Amazonian plain and includes territories in the departments of Loreto, Ucayali, Madre de Dios, San Martn, Hu nuco, and Pasco. It is characterized by a hot and rainy climate with dense vegetation. Fauna highlights include the otorongo (jaguar), the ronsoco (capybara), and the yellow macaw (guacamayo amarillo). The Amazon River is the principal tourist attraction. While the jungle is considered a "lung of the planet," it is the least populated region of the country, containing only of the population.
The Sabana de Palmeras is situated in the department of Madre de Dios on the border with Bolivia. It boasts some of the highest biological diversity in Peru. Species found here include the giant toucan, the anteater, the maned wolf (lobo de crin), and the aguaje palm. The Santuario Nacional Pampas del Heath is a primary tourist attraction.
The Middle Ages and Feudalism
The Middle Ages is the historical period that followed the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. It is divided into three main stages: the Alta Edad Media (Early Middle Ages), the Medioevo (High Middle Ages), and the Baja Edad Media (Late Middle Ages). The Early Middle Ages (5th to 10th century) was characterized by the growth of power in the Church and the rural nobility, as well as the expansion of Islam. This period marked the consolidation of Christianity and the establishment of feudal institutions.
Feudalism was the predominant political, economic, and social system in Western Europe during the Middle Ages (9th to 15th centuries). It was characterized by the decentralization of power, where warrior nobles owned lands called fiefs (feudos) and exercised control over serfs in exchange for protection. The hierarchy consisted of the King, who had limited power; the Nobles or Feudal Lords, who owned lands; the Vassals, who were lower-ranking nobles swearing loyalty; and the Peasants and Serfs, who worked the land and gave part of their production to the lord.
Barbarian invasions played a significant role in the fall of the Roman Empire and the subsequent reorganization of Europe. The Romans called anyone living outside the empire "barbarians." These groups included the Visigoths (who settled in Hispania), the Ostrogoths (Italian Peninsula), the Franks (France), the Germans (Germany), the Anglos and Saxons (Britain), and the Huns (from Mongolia and China). These tribes lived mainly through agriculture, livestock, and war.
The Resurgence of Trade and the Late Middle Ages
The Late Middle Ages (14th and 15th centuries) brought deep transformations to the continent. Improvements in the countryside, such as the use of the plow (arado), irrigation, and new crops introduced by Muslims, led to an increase in production and food surpluses. This resulted in better nutrition, population growth, and a search for new lands, which eventually triggered migrations from the countryside to the cities.
Trade development during this stage facilitated contact between different cultures and regions. The most significant exponent of this expansion was the Silk Road, which connected Europe with Central Asia and India, with Marco Polo being the most noted traveler (reaching China and India). The growth of trade required more practical economic systems, leading to the substitution of barter for coin payments. To facilitate transactions and currency exchange, the first banks emerged, providing loans with high interest and issuing bills of exchange.
The resurgence of cities and trade gave birth to a new social class called the Bourgeoisie (Burguesa). This sector was distinguished because its power was founded on money rather than land ownership or birthright. The bourgeoisie dedicated themselves to commerce, and the term later came to designate all inhabitants of the urban centers. The cities that grew the most were those situated on major commercial routes.
The Crusades: Expeditions to the Holy Land
The Crusades were a series of military campaigns organized by the Popes and the Christian powers of Europe between the 11th and 13th centuries. The primary objective was to recover the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem from Muslim control. The background of these conflicts involved Seljuk Turks attacking the Byzantine Empire and seizing Syria and Egypt. Facing this threat, the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I (Alejo I) requested help from Pope Urban II.
In 1095, at the Council of Clermont in France, Pope Urban II called for a holy war. The traditional war cry of the Crusaders became "Deus Vult" (God wills it). There were eight major crusades. The First Crusade succeeded in capturing Jerusalem. The Third Crusade featured leaders like Richard the Lionheart and Saladin; although they did not recapture Jerusalem, an agreement allowed Christian pilgrims access. The Fourth Crusade was diverted from its original goal and ended with the sacking of the Christian city of Constantinople. Later crusades, such as the Fifth, Seventh, and Eighth, were largely failures, with King Louis IX of France dying during the final expedition. The Sixth Crusade was unique as it was resolved through diplomacy by Emperor Frederick II rather than war.
Questions & Discussion
During the study of ecoregions, the following points were discussed. Why is Peru considered a mega-diverse country? It is due to its Andean and Amazonian regions, which provide a vast variety of flora, fauna, and species. Why is the Humboldt Current important? Because it brings essential nutrients and plankton for marine life. How does it influence fishing? The current brings plankton, which attracts various fish to the coast. What are the consequences of climate change for the sea? The ocean heats up, and the sea level increases, which can reduce marine biodiversity.
In the reflection of human impact, it was noted that we can care for our ecoregions by not throwing away trash, reducing paper use, recycling, and generally caring for nature. Regarding the history of the Late Middle Ages, several questions were addressed. Why did people migrate to cities? They sought work, escaped feudal servitude, aimed to improve living conditions, and wanted to develop through commerce. Did trade improve life? Yes, because it improved the quality of life by providing more income. What transformations did the Late Middle Ages bring to the continent? Cities emerged, banks were created, and the barter system was replaced by currency. Why was barter replaced? Because it was impractical for an economy that was growing rapidly.
Regarding the Crusades, the following evaluation was made. What positive aspect is mentioned? It generated a cultural exchange between the East and the West, allowing for advances in science and medicine. What negative aspect is highlighted? That many innocent people died in wars that had nothing to do with them. Do the ends justify the means? No, because violence toward innocent people cannot be justified.