The Spanish-American War

Cuba is an island situated approximately 90 miles off the coast of Florida.
Historically, Cuba was a Spanish colony, analogous to the 13 American colonies which were British colonies. By the 1890s, Cuba remained a part of the Spanish Empire, which had diminished significantly since the 1500s.

Throughout the 19th century, there were numerous revolutions in Cuba, reflecting the people's desire for independence from Spanish rule.
The Cuban populace frequently turned to Americans for assistance, believing that there was a shared interest in their struggle for independence, akin to the American Revolution against England in the 1700s.
Despite these sentiments, the United States largely abstained from intervening in the Cuban wars for independence prior to the 1890s.

By the 1890s, several factors prompted American interest in Cuba:
- Economic Interests: American investments in Cuba amounted to roughly $50 million. The viability of these investments was threatened by the ongoing revolutions.
- Empathy for Cubans: Some Americans felt a moral obligation to support Cuba in its fight for independence, analogous to the assistance the French provided to the Americans during their own revolution.
- Media Influence: Americans were exposed to reports from journalists covering the Cuban revolution. Many accounts depicted the brutal tactics employed by the Spanish, escalating public discontent against Spain.

The Cuban revolution was characterized by guerrilla warfare, where revolutionary factions hid among civilians and targeted Spanish forces.
Guerrilla warfare poses unique challenges since combatants blend in with the population, complicating efforts to identify and combat them.
The Spanish countered this by detaining entire villages suspected of harboring guerrilla fighters, leading to widespread imprisonment and human suffering among civilians.
- Approximately 500,000 Cubans were imprisoned in military camps under atrocious conditions, with around 200,000 estimated to have died due to malnutrition, disease, and neglect.

Definition: Yellow journalism refers to sensationalized and often exaggerated news reporting aimed at generating public interest.
Prominent journalist William Randolph Hearst, through his newspaper the New York Journal, exemplified this practice during the Cuban revolution. He urged reporters to fabricate stories when actual events did not produce sufficient sensationalism.
One emblematic instance of yellow journalism involved an illustration by Frederick Remington, depicting a nude Cuban woman being searched by Spanish agents, which was a fabricated event designed to provoke outrage.

Cleveland prioritized American investment protection over military intervention and appealed to the Spanish government, which was rejected.

McKinley adopted a more isolationist approach initially, desiring peace rather than conflict. He sent William Calhoun to Cuba to assess the situation.
Calhoun confirmed many journalists' reports regarding the poor conditions faced by Cubans under Spanish rule, increasing public and political pressure on McKinley.

The DeLôme Letter: A private letter from Spanish Minister Enrique DeLôme, mocking McKinley and predicting no real changes in Spanish governance in Cuba, was published by Hearst and incited public anger against Spain.
Explosion of USS Maine: On February 15, 1898, the USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 258 Americans. An investigation suggested an external explosion, leading to strong anti-Spanish sentiments and calls for war, although later investigations (such as one in 1976) indicated it was likely an internal accident.

Following the heightened emotions from the DeLôme Letter and the USS Maine incident, the U.S. Congress declared war against Spain in April 1898, viewing it as a humanitarian mission to free Cuba from colonial oppression.
Despite its short duration, the war revealed significant logistic challenges, including inadequate supplies and sanitary conditions within U.S. military camps, which led to higher disease-related casualties than combat fatalities.
African American soldiers, serving in segregated units, faced the worst conditions and issues during their service.

The war concluded with the independence of Cuba, though the U.S. gained territories including Puerto Rico and Guam, and purchased the Philippines for $20 million.
The resulting treaty faced contention regarding the status of the Philippines, with debates over citizenship rights and representation for Filipinos in the U.S.
The U.S. struggled with insurrection in the Philippines post-war as many Filipinos opposed American governance, leading to significant conflict until the Philippines eventually gained independence in 1946.

Approximately 379 Americans died in battle; however, about 5,000 succumbed to diseases.
The Spanish-American War marked a turning point, helping to bridge divisions from the Civil War by uniting northern and southern forces for a common goal.
The war fueled expansionist sentiments and led the U.S. towards a more interventionist foreign policy stance, particularly in relation to emerging world powers.
The Open Door Policy proposed in 1899 reveals the U.S. interest in global trade dynamics, despite it not being fully adopted.
The material sets the stage for further exploration of U.S. cultural developments and the lead-up to World War I as students advance their studies into the 20th century and beyond.