Textbook Notes

Chapter 6

Key Terms Absolute Poverty: Refers to a lack of basic necessities. Blaming the System: Takes enviornmental factors into consideration and recognizes the systemtic discrimination that exists within society. Blaming the Victim: A view that holds individuals entirely responsible for any negative situations that may arise in their lives. Caste System: Rooted in religion and is based on the divison of labour. Notes Details from the chapter. Introduction Social Construction of Reality: Our understanding of the world and ourselves is formed through interactions with others, shaping our perceptions and reactions. Social Inequality and Class: The example of visiting classmates' homes demonstrates how societal factors such as location, size, and upkeep of homes evoke different social reactions and assumptions about class and status. Material Objects and Assumptions: The discussion expands to other scenarios, like noticing a car, shoes, purses, or technology, where we unconsciously make assumptions based on material possessions, contributing to the division between those who have and those who have not. Link between Wealth and Power: The relationship between wealth, assets, and power is emphasized. The example of Donald Trump's presidency illustrates how possessing wealth and assets can overshadow other qualifications, indicating that economic hierarchy often correlates with societal influence and control. Economic Hierarchy and Control: Individuals at the top of the economic hierarchy typically wield more control over the lives of those less well-off, showcasing the influence and power dynamics tied to economic standing. Social Stratification Social Stratification and Its Impact: Social stratification, based on wealth, power, and prestige, significantly influences various aspects of life, including education, housing, transportation, and even health. It divides society into social classes, impacting individuals' statuses. Meritocracy and Ascribed Status: While the concept of a meritocracy, where achievements matter more than ascribed status, is often chapter six. 3 Clan System: The most prevelant in agricultural societies; every individual is connected to a larger network of their relatives. Class: The system of ordering a society in which people are divided into sets based on perceived social or economic status. Class System: Social ranking based primarily on economic position within society that often begins at birth when an individual is given a status. Classism: Bias, predjudice, and discrimination on the basis of social class. idealized, research reveals complexities. The relationship between achieved and ascribed statuses influences opportunities, such as education, where family income significantly affects access to higher education. Education and Socio-economic Status: Elite institutions like the University of Toronto exemplify how cost becomes a barrier, making such education accessible mainly to the wealthy. Economic constraints, like loans and debts, restrict social mobility even when individuals work hard to change their socio-economic status. Impact of Ascribed Status on Economic Well-being: Personal anecdotes illustrate how ascribed status, like growing up in poverty, can hinder economic progress despite individual effort. Student loans and debt can significantly delay financial stability and wealth accumulation. Socio-economic Status and Opportunities in Canada: While Canada provides some opportunities for upward mobility, ascribed status often limits access to education and high-paying jobs for certain groups. Global Inequality and Measurement: Discussion expands to global inequality, examining measurement tools like the Gini coefficient. Research indicates substantial inequality in various regions worldwide, with improvements noted due to economic growth in specific countries like India and China. Complexity of Global Inequality: Analyzing global inequality proves intricate, influenced by different measurement standards, data availability, and the selection of countries under consideration. Systems of Stratification Class System: This system ranks individuals based primarily on their economic positions, offering room for achieved status. It is considered an open system allowing for social mobility. Slavery: Historically, one of the most extreme forms of social stratification where people were owned by others. Slavery was prevalent in various regions, including the United States and Canada, with Africans and Indigenous people being enslaved. Although chapter six. 4 Conspicuous Consumption: The purchasing of expensive goods and services primarily for the purpose of putting wealth on display. Davis-Moore Hypothesis: Every society requires people to fulfill all different kinds of roles. Elite: Those who hold disproportionate financial and other assets. False Conciousness: The belief that if they work hard enough, they too can become a member of the elite. Low Income Cutoff: Identifies abolished formally, it persists today as human trafficking, including in regions like Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. Caste System: Rooted in religion, particularly in Hinduism, the caste system determines a person's status at birth, limiting social mobility entirely. It divides society into distinct occupational groups or castes, and despite its legal abolition, remnants continue to influence societal norms, especially in India. Clan System: Predominant in agricultural societies like Scotland, the clan system connects individuals to a large network of relatives, sharing a common status within society. Unlike the caste system, marriages could cross clan lines and often focused on creating alliances. In contemporary times, the clan system has mostly been replaced by the class system. Theoretical Perspectives on Stratification Functionalism: Functionalists, like Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore, propose the Davis-Moore hypothesis, suggesting that social stratification serves a purpose by ensuring that various roles within society are filled. They argue that the rewards individuals receive correspond to the level of investment in education and training required for specific roles. Conflict Theory: Based on Karl Marx's ideas, conflict theory highlights how the bourgeoisie (owners of means of production) exploit the proletariat (working class) for labor and capital gain. It addresses the power dynamics and class consciousness within society, emphasizing the role of class struggle and false consciousness among the working class. Max Weber's Contribution: Max Weber offers a different perspective on class inequalities, considering social position as a combination of wealth and status rather than solely based on means of production. He introduces the concept of wealth, income, and status determining social standing, which forms the basis of contemporary conceptions of class. chapter six. 5 income thresholds of families who are likely to spend a larger portion of their income on necessities than an average family of similar size. Low Income Measure: Calculates the low income threshold of a household as one-half of the median income of a household of the same size in a similarsized community. Market Basket Measure: Calculates how much income a household requires to meet it’s needs. Meritocracy: A system based on achievements Symbolic Interactionism: This perspective focuses on how people maintain class distinctions through social interactions, particularly through the use and meaning of "status symbols." Thorstein Veblen's idea of conspicuous consumption is highlighted, emphasizing the display of wealth through material possessions as status symbols. Feminist Perspective: Feminist sociologists emphasize gendered patterns of domination in understanding inequality, stressing the intersectionality of various inequalities based on class, gender, race, ability, and sexual orientation in both home and workplace contexts. Documentary "Us and Them": The documentary portrays the lives of chronically homeless individuals, challenging misconceptions about homelessness and addressing the flawed nature of the "Pull yourself up by your bootstraps" narrative. Class in Canada Elite: The text discusses different social classes in Canada, focusing on the wealthy elite, the middle class, and the economically marginalized. It highlights the work of sociologists like C. Wright Mills, John Porter, Wallace Clement, and Jamie Brownlee, who studied the power and influence of the elite in society. They emphasize how the elite control important institutions and how wealth tends to pass down generationally among them. Middle Class: Regarding the middle class, the text notes that most Canadians consider themselves middle class, but the group is shrinking due to a rise in low-income earners. Studies indicate a significant increase in low-income neighborhoods and a decrease in middle-income earners, contributing to the economic divide. Poverty: Regarding poverty, the text explores different ways of defining and measuring poverty in Canada, such as the Low Income Cut-Off (LICO), Market Basket Measure (MBM), and Low Income Measure (LIM). It highlights the income disparity between the rich and poor, showing that a small percentage of Canadians live in poverty despite the country's overall wealth. chapter six. 6 rather than on ascribed status. Poverty: Descibes situations where people lack many of the opportunities avaliable to the average citizen. Prestige: widespread respect and admiration felt for someone or something on the basis of a perception of their achievements or quality. Relative Poverty: Emphasize inadequacy compared to average living standards. Social Mobility: The ability to move between social classes. Income Inequality: Further, the text discusses groups facing high income inequality in Canada, including women, unattached singles, Indigenous people, immigrants, visible minorities, and disabled individuals. It illustrates how these groups are disproportionately affected by poverty due to various factors such as gender, racial discrimination, historical injustices, and disability. Culture of Poverty: In examining poverty, the text critiques the concept of blaming the victim and the "culture of poverty" theory, highlighting the importance of systemic factors and societal structures in perpetuating poverty. It also mentions current research that identifies inequalities in access to education and employment opportunities, particularly affecting marginalized groups. Pop-Culture References: Finally, it delves into popular culture references and TV shows, pointing out how society is fascinated by the lives of the wealthy and fictional representations of wealth. The text concludes by discussing films like "Shameless" and "The Florida Project," which depict the realities of impoverished individuals and families. chapter six. 7 Social Stratification: The hierarchical arrangement of individuals based on wealth, power and prestige. SocioEconomic Status: an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's economic access to resources and social position in relation to others.

Chapter 12

elve. 1 🖋 chapter twelve. chapter twelve. 2 🔑 Key Terms Health: A state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Gatekeeper: Talcott Parson’s term for medical professionals who are charged with either verifying our condition as an “illness” or determining that we are “recovered.” Healthy Immigrant Effect: A trend where newcomers, upon arrival to Canada, are healthier than Notes Details from the chapter. Introduction: Vaccination Trends and Public Health: Disease Outbreaks: Instances of preventable illnesses have persisted, showing a decline in measles cases in Canada but an increase in the United States. Anti-Vaccination Movement Impact: Potential factors include fear stemming from unsubstantiated claims linking vaccines to autism, despite scientific refutations. Celebrity Influence: Celebrities like Jenny McCarthy and Jim Carrey amplified the anti-vaccination movement, drawing media attention to the claimed vaccine-autism link. Sociological Reasons for Non-Vaccination: Religious beliefs, political views, and socioeconomic status impact vaccination decisions. Global Threat of Decreased Immunization: Dropping immunization rates pose a global risk, affecting not only individuals but also those unable to receive vaccinations due to health conditions or age. Sociological Perspectives on Vaccination: Sociological Inquiry: Sociologists examine factors influencing vaccination decisions and their societal effects. Social Factors and Vaccination Rates: Socioeconomic status affects vaccination decisions, with high and low-income families more likely to opt out, often due to policy-related issues. Policy and Wealth Influence: Policy-related reasons in some countries enable affluent individuals to make choices affecting the broader population, potentially endangering vulnerable groups. chapter twelve. 3 the average Canadian, mostly because of the requirments of entry. Illness: A period of impaired or abnormal functioning of the body or mind that is not caused by physical trauma. Incidence: Refers to the occurence or rate at which new cases of a specific illness occur within a given population duing a specific period of time. Life Expectancy: The average number of years that a person is Disparities in Low/Middle-Income Countries: In these regions, under-vaccination arises not solely from parental attitudes but also from systemic issues like inadequate vaccine supplies or insufficiently trained staff. Sociological Questions and Context: Sociological Analysis: Sociologists explore who is less likely to vaccinate and why, considering social factors like wealth, politics, and geographic location. Societal Impact: Examination of how vaccination trends affect society at large, weighing the implications of forced immunization against the collective health risk. Global Connectivity and Disease Transmission: In our interconnected world, frequent international travel increases the likelihood of disease transmission, especially for diseases previously eradicated in certain areas. What is Health and Illness? Health and Illness: Perception of Health Responsibility: Generally, health and illness are often viewed as individual responsibilities, influenced by behaviors such as exercise, diet, and medical adherence. Sociology of Health and Illness: Macro and Micro-Level Influences: The sociology of health and illness explores how broader socio-cultural factors impact health on a societal level and how they shape individual behaviors and lifestyle choices. Interaction of Social Forces and Health: Sociologists examine how social factors influence disease rates and mortality across various population segments and in society overall. Dynamic Definitions of Illness: Sociologists study how perceptions of health and illness change over time and place, such chapter twelve. 4 expected to live. Medicalization: The process whereby nonmedical problems become defined and treated as problems, usually in terms of illnesses and disorders. Morbidity: The prevalence and patterns of disease in a population. Mortality: The incidence and patterns of death in a population. Prevalence: The total number of cases that exist at a specific period of time. Sick Role: A micro-level as the evolving understanding of certain conditions (e.g., the historical categorization of being gay as an illness). Impact of Social Institutions: This discipline investigates how various social institutions like family, work, government, education, and religion influence health, illness, and the choices individuals make regarding healthcare. Case of Midwifery: Sociologists analyze changes in healthcare practices, like the resurgence of midwifery, exploring factors such as legislation, social movements, and accessibility of healthcare options. Inquiry Questions: Sociologists pose questions regarding the drivers of changes in healthcare practices, the effects of legislation, accessibility of healthcare options, and factors influencing people's choices in seeking particular forms of healthcare. Social Determinants of Health: Definition: Social determinants of health encompass various socio-cultural conditions in people's lives that significantly influence their health outcomes. These encompass factors such as income, social status, education, living conditions, access to health care, genetic traits, gender, race, and culture. Income Inequality and Health: Impact of Poverty: Low-income individuals in Canada face increased mortality rates and more illnesses, irrespective of age, sex, or race. Oral Health and Income: Income inequality affects oral health, with poorer individuals reporting poorer oral health due to limited access to dental care. Social Assistance Challenges: Social assistance in Canada, due to insufficient support and work-related requirements, fails to chapter twelve. 5 method of social control. Sociology of Health and Illness: The interaction between society and heath: how our social life impacts rates of disease and death in different population segments, and in turn how those rates compare to society as a whole. Social Determinants of Health: The conditions under which people are born, grow, live, work, and age. Social Epidemiology: A branch of epidemiology that focuses protect people's health, leading to precarious work conditions and inadequate income. Indigeneity and Health: Health Disparities: Indigenous populations in Canada experience significantly lower life expectancies and higher rates of various health issues, such as infant mortality, maternal morbidity, infectious diseases, and chronic illnesses, mostly linked to poverty and environmental racism. Immigrant Status and Health: Healthy Immigrant Effect: Initially, newcomers to Canada are healthier than the general population due to entry requirements. However, health declines over time and generations. Healthcare Access: Immigrants and refugees often end up in emergency rooms for mental health issues due to limited access to other healthcare options. Gender and Health: Gender Disparities: Differences in life expectancy by gender persist, influenced by biological factors and social behaviors. Health Service Gaps: Men experience higher rates of job-related deaths and suicide, while women face underrepresentation and disparities in healthcare treatments. Transgender Health: Research on transgender and non-binary people reveals challenges in healthcare access, lack of medical training, and social factors affecting health outcomes. Alcoholism among Women: Rising Concern: The increase in heavy drinking among Canadian women is a growing concern, contributing to higher rates of alcohol-related deaths and serious health consequences. Factors Contributing to Drinking: Stress, cultural shifts, and glorification of alcohol as a stress reliever contribute to increased alcohol consumption among women. chapter twelve. 6 particularly on the effects of socialstructural factors on health distribution. Health Consequences: Frequent alcohol consumption leads to short-term risks like accidents and long-term health issues such as cirrhosis, diabetes, hypertension, and cancer. Social Epidemiology: Life Expectancy: Definition: Life expectancy indicates the average number of years a person is expected to live. Higher life expectancy generally suggests a healthier population. Impacts: Factors influencing life expectancy include disease prevalence, access to healthcare, scientific advancements, social programs, and policies. Canadian Life Expectancy: In Canada, the average life expectancy is relatively high, with men expected to live up to 79 years and women up to 83 years. Notably, there has been a significant increase in life expectancy since the 1900s, showing a considerable improvement in overall health and living conditions. Theoretical Perspectives on Health and Illness: Functionalism: Beliefs: Functionalists posit that everyone has a role in society for it to function properly. Sickness View: Illness temporarily inhibits an individual's capacity to perform daily tasks, disrupting societal functioning. Control of Sickness: Managed through a medical care system and societal rules. Sick Role: Talcott Parsons identified four elements of the sick role: 1. Sick individuals aren't held responsible for being sick. 2. They are exempt from regular responsibilities. 3. They should dislike being sick and strive to recover. 4. Seek appropriate medical help to return to normal routines. chapter twelve. 7 Conflict Theory: Perspective: Views medicine as a major institution of social control, leading to the "medicalization" of society. Medicalization: Non-medical issues are defined and treated as medical problems or disorders. Examples: Various conditions, from low sex drive to chronic fatigue syndrome, have become medicalized. Symbolic Interactionism: Focus: Examines the meanings people associate with health and illness. Impact of Labels: Health/illness labels can significantly influence an individual's life. Master Status: Certain illnesses become an individual's dominant identity, overshadowing other aspects of their life. Sociological Questions Based on Googled Health Questions: Sociologists might explore how these questions reflect societal concerns, trends, and information seeking. They could analyze the influence of internet information on health decisions and information gaps in public knowledge. Patient-Health Professional Interaction: Interactionists emphasize the active roles of patients in seeking medical advice, including seeking online information. They highlight instances of non-compliance with medical instructions, potentially influenced by societal norms like selfmedication. Feminism: Focus: Explores gender as a social determinant of health using an intersectional framework. chapter twelve. 8 Medicalization Critique: Criticizes the medicalization of women's bodies for natural physiological processes like PMS and menopause. Reproductive Focus: Highlights the overshadowing of diverse health concerns by the focus on women's reproductive capacity. A Brief History of the Canadian Healthcare System: Health Care Systems in Canada: Historical Context: Pre-1950s, Canadians were responsible for their healthcare costs, but in 1957, the government began assuming responsibility. Legislations: Hospital Insurance and Diagnostic Services Act (1957), Medical Care Act (1966), and Canada Health Act (1984) enshrined five principles: 1. Universal coverage for all Canadians. 2. Accessibility without financial barriers. 3. Comprehensive coverage for necessary services. 4. Portability between provinces. 5. Public administration on a not-for-profit basis. Freebirth vs. Hospital Birth: Trend in Canada and the UK: Increasing instances of women choosing "freebirth" (delivering at home without medical assistance). Reasons for Freebirth: Control over birthing process, dissatisfaction with the medical system, and seeking autonomy. Hospital Birth Perspective: Desire for pain relief and fear of complications drive many to choose hospital births. Current Issues in Healthcare: Factors Contributing to Hospital Wait Times Beyond an Aging Population and Increased Volume: chapter twelve. 9 1. Resource Allocation: Inefficient allocation of resources within the healthcare system, especially a focus on acute care while not adequately addressing chronic conditions. 2. Overcrowding in Acute Care Centers: The system's emphasis on acute care leads to chronic patients utilizing emergency rooms due to lack of alternative care avenues. 3. Doctor Shortage: A shortage of doctors in Canada compared to the population size contributes to difficulties in providing timely care. 4. Systemic Complexities: The complexity of the healthcare system, being managed provincially but partially funded federally, creates inefficiencies in resource allocation and service delivery. 5. Chronic Health Conditions: With an aging population, the rise in chronic health conditions necessitates more extended and specialized care, impacting hospital wait times. Sociological Contribution to Healthcare Issues: 1. Policy Recommendations: Sociologists can analyze data, compare with other countries, and offer insights into resolving healthcare challenges through informed policy recommendations. 2. Public Opinion Influence: Studying healthcare issues allows sociologists to influence public opinion, advocating for effective policies on a national scale. 3. Comparative Analysis: By comparing healthcare data with other nations, sociologists can identify successful strategies implemented elsewhere and propose similar solutions for Canada's healthcare challenges. Recent Shifts in Health and Health Policy: Mental Health and Trauma: Impact Factors: Mental health is influenced by various factors like poverty, job insecurity, and housing instability. chapter twelve. 10 Interconnectedness: Mental health, social relationships, abuse, trauma, and financial stability are interconnected, requiring sociological understanding. Recommended Approaches: Community-based prevention, stable housing strategies, and reintegration to improve mental health and address interpersonal violence. Marijuana for Medical Purposes: Legislation: Medical marijuana legalized since 1999, with evolving regulations for access and production. Medical Benefits: Used to alleviate pain, mood disorders, and memory issues. A growing market projected to reach over $2 billion by 2020. Sociological Implication: Blurring lines between medication and recreation challenges traditional perceptions of the "sick role." Medically Assisted Death: Historical Context: Legal battle for the right to choose to die with dignity dates back to the 1990s. Legalization: Canadian Supreme Court ruling in 2015 allowed assisted death for mentally competent adults suffering intolerably from fatal diseases. Challenges: Some faith-based institutions refuse to permit assisted death despite legislation, leading to a clash between medical practices and patients' rights. Opioid Crisis: Public Health Concern: Rising opioid-related deaths due to high prescription rates and synthetic opioids like fentanyl. Affected Demographics: Overdoses more prevalent among those over 30, challenging the stereotype of drug abuse affecting only the young and impoverished. chapter twelve. 11 Sociological Response: Podcasts and media platforms explore drug policy and the ongoing overdose crisis, emphasizing social activism. Climate Change and Health: Health Risks: Climate change contributes to air pollution, altered disease transmission, food production issues, natural disasters, and population displacement. Social Implications: Disproportionate impact on vulnerable populations and questions on how extreme weather events and health risks affect those without health insurance. chapter twelve. 12 📖 Main Points Highlights of the chapter. Vaccination Trends and Public Health: Disease Outbreaks: Instances of preventable illnesses persist despite declining measles cases in Canada, with a rise seen in the United States. Anti-Vaccination Movement: Fueled by unsubstantiated claims linking vaccines to autism, amplified by celebrity influence and impacting vaccination decisions based on religious, political, and socioeconomic factors. Global Threat: Dropping immunization rates pose a global risk, impacting both individuals and those unable to receive vaccinations due to health conditions or age. Sociological Perspectives on Vaccination: Social Factors and Vaccination Rates: Socioeconomic status influences vaccination decisions, creating disparities; policy-related reasons enable the affluent to affect the broader population. Disparities in Low/Middle-Income Countries: Issues like inadequate vaccine supplies or insufficiently trained staff contribute to under-vaccination. Questions & Context: Analysis of social factors influencing vaccination decisions and their societal effects, along with examining the global impact of decreased immunization rates. What is Health and Illness? Perception of Health Responsibility: Generally viewed as individual responsibility shaped by behaviors like exercise, diet, and medical adherence. Sociology of Health and Illness: Macro and Micro-Level Influences: Broader socio-cultural factors impact health on a societal level and shape individual behaviors. Interaction of Social Forces and Health: Examines how social factors influence disease rates and mortality across various population segments. chapter twelve. 13 Impact of Social Institutions: Analyzes how various social institutions influence health, illness, and healthcare choices. Dynamic Definitions of Illness: Studies the changing perceptions of health and illness over time and place. Social Determinants of Health: Income inequality, indigeneity, immigrant status, gender disparities, and other social factors significantly impact health outcomes. Social Epidemiology: Life Expectancy: Factors like disease prevalence, access to healthcare, social programs, and policies influence life expectancy. Theoretical Perspectives: Functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic interactionism, feminism, and their views on health and illness. Recent Shifts in Health and Health Policy: Mental Health and Trauma: Addressing mental health requires understanding interconnected social factors like poverty, job insecurity, and housing instability. Marijuana for Medical Purposes: Legalization challenges traditional perceptions of the "sick role" due to blurred lines between medication and recreation. Medically Assisted Death: Legal battles and legislative changes allowing assisted death for those suffering intolerably from fatal diseases. Opioid Crisis: Rising opioid-related deaths due to high prescription rates and synthetic opioids; podcasts and media platforms emphasize social activism. Climate Change and Health: Health risks due to climate change include air pollution, altered disease transmission, food production issues, and population displacement, impacting vulnerable populations.

chapter ten. chapter ten. 2 🔑 Key Terms Crime: Any act formally banned by law. Criminology: The scientific approach to the study of the causes of crime. Dark Figure of Crime: The significant difference between the number of criminal incidents, reporting to police, and conviction. Deviance: The violation of established social norms, actions, or behaviours. Folkways: The customs that people take part in every day. Formal Social Control: Gives Notes Details from the chapter. Introduction: Folkways: Customs and behaviors in everyday life that people learn since childhood, tied to expectations of normalized behavior. Examples include greeting etiquette, queuing in lines, appropriate dressing based on situations, and using specific utensils for eating certain foods. Breaking folkways may lead to social disapproval or mild consequences like receiving strange looks or verbal reprimand, but generally, there are no serious repercussions. Mores: Social norms with significant moral significance that are widely observed in a society. Violating mores has more severe consequences compared to breaking folkways. Examples of mores include taboos such as incest, cannibalism, adultery, plagiarism, and premarital sex. Consequences for violating mores can include arrest, fines, banishment, or other significant sanctions depending on the seriousness of the violation and societal norms. Deviance and Social Control: Deviance and Social Norms: Deviance refers to actions, behaviors, or states of being that result in a negative reaction or response from a community or group. Understanding deviance involves examining accepted standards and social expectations around behaviors within a particular chapter ten. 3 specific people, such as police officers, the responsibility to enforce specific laws, using specific methods of enforcement. Informal Social Control: A type of oscial control that ordinary people can partake in. Utilizes methods such as gossip, praise, or blame. Labelling Theory: Argues that people come to identify and behave in ways that reflect how others label them. Mores: Social norms that are widely obeserved and are considered to have greater moral culture. What's considered proper or acceptable conduct may differ between individuals or cultures, and certain behaviors might be deemed unacceptable by some but acceptable by others. Social Construction and Subjectivity of Deviance: Deviance is socially constructed and subjective, varying across cultures and time periods. Behaviors considered deviant in one place or time may not be deemed deviant in another. For instance, attitudes toward tattoos have evolved over time, becoming more socially acceptable in some cultures. Responses from the social world play a crucial role in classifying behavior as deviant, indicating the concept's subjectivity. Social Control: Social control encompasses all institutions and procedures that influence members of society to conform to expected behavioral rules. Formal social control involves the enforcement of laws by authorized entities like police and courts, while informal social control includes non-legal means such as gossip, praise, blame, and stigma. Feelings of guilt, shame, and fear of public scrutiny can be effective informal social control mechanisms in maintaining social order, alongside the threat of legal sanctions. Identity as Deviance: Some people are considered deviant solely based on their identity, which differs from the cultural norm. This includes being part of a minority gender, race, religion, or having a disability. Social control can range from harmless actions like gossip to extreme forms such as genocide, exclusionary infrastructure, street harassment, and assumptions of cultural hegemony. chapter ten. 4 significance than others. Positivism: Focuses on the level of the individual, specifically biology. Rational Choice Theory: Based on the position that crime is the result of a person’s rational choice to commit it or not. Social Control: Refers to all the institutions and procedures that force members of society to conform to rules of expected behaviour. Social Disorganization: Claims that modern, industrial societies are more susceptible to Relativity of Deviance: Deviance is relative, varying between different groups, communities, or societies. What is considered normal or deviant in one culture may be entirely different in another. Cultural relativity is evident in behaviors such as kissing (seen as intimate in some cultures and not present in others) and the use of a toilet seat (considered normal in some cultures while seen as unsanitary in others). Ultimately, deviance is subjective and contingent upon cultural and societal norms, differing across various contexts. Crime: Crime and its Definition: A crime is any act formally prohibited by criminal law, as outlined in Canada's Criminal Code. Defining certain actions as crimes grants the state the authority to pursue, apprehend, try, convict, and punish offenders, as prescribed by the Criminal Code. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field encompassing the study of the causes of crime, crime prevention strategies, and the rehabilitation of lawbreakers. Crime vs. Deviance: While crime refers to actions formally requiring social intervention, deviance encompasses behaviors that violate social norms, which might not necessarily have formal interventions attached. Not all deviant actions are considered criminal, and some criminal actions might not be perceived as deviant by society. Sociological inquiry into crime involves understanding the social context wherein crime occurs and the societal frameworks surrounding law creation and enforcement. chapter ten. 5 deviance than others. Strain Theory: The idea that the cause of deviance lies in society’s unequal opportunity structure. Stigma: A mark of shame or social disgrace, and it discredits an individual or group. Victimless Crime: No one suffers directly from these acts, except the people who engaged in them and their family. White-Collar Crimes: Are punished more lenietly than crimes by the lower class. Social Construction of Deviance: Deviance and what is considered criminal can shift over time and across cultures, as societal perceptions evolve. Smoking and marijuana use serve as examples of behaviors whose social acceptance has fluctuated. Criminologists focus on the ways in which crime is socially constructed and how definitions of deviant behavior evolve over time. Victimless Crimes and Reporting: Some crimes, like gambling, drug possession, or illegal parking, are labeled victimless crimes, with no direct victim other than the participants or their families. Certain crimes, particularly sexual assaults, are significantly underreported due to various fears including legal, psychological, and public humiliation. The Dark Figure of Crime: The gap between actual criminal incidents and those reported, investigated, prosecuted, and convicted is known as the dark figure of crime or the crime funnel. A vast majority of criminal incidents go unreported, and only a small fraction result in convictions, contributing to the discrepancy in crime statistics. Trends in Crime Reporting: Property crimes significantly outnumber violent crimes, and while overall crime decreased from 1992 to 2012, there has been a recent upward trend in crime rates in the past few years. Criminologists analyze these trends, exploring potential causes behind changes in crime rates and their relationship with societal shifts. Major Perspectives on Crime and Deviance: chapter ten. 6 Historical Context: Middle Ages and Witch Hunts: During the Middle Ages in Europe, societal explanations for deviance centered around the belief that those who violated social norms were possessed by demons or influenced by magic and spirits. Witch hunts emerged as a mechanism of social control, centralizing deviance control in the Catholic Church. The Salem witch trials in North America (1692-1693) were a notable example where hysteria resulted in accusations of witchcraft and executions. Rational Choice Theory: Concept: Rational choice theory assumes that individuals make calculated choices before engaging in criminal acts. Critique: While plausible for some crimes, this theory might not be applicable to all criminal behaviors. Reformist Approaches: Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham: During the mid-eighteenth century, Beccaria and Bentham emphasized that crime wasn't supernatural but a purposeful action that might give pleasure to some individuals. Their theory, known as rational choice theory, posited that the fear of punishment must outweigh the rewards of committing a crime for effective crime control. Biological Approaches: Positivism and Biological Determinism: In the 19th century, positivists advocated for applying the scientific method to study crime, focusing on individual biology. Cesare Lombroso, a prominent figure, proposed biological determinism, asserting that some individuals were born criminals due to congenital factors. His ideas, influenced by racism and Eurocentrism, associated certain physical characteristics with criminality. William Sheldon's Body Typing: In the 1940s, Sheldon suggested that behaviors could be predicted based on body types, associating mesomorphs with delinquency. chapter ten. 7 Sociological Approaches: Functionalism: Social Disorganization Theory: Developed in the 1930s-1940s, this theory argued that modern industrial societies were more susceptible to deviance due to disruptions caused by industrialization, urbanization, and immigration. It highlighted how social changes influenced crime patterns, especially among the working class and the poor. Strain Theory (Robert Merton): Merton's strain theory posited that societal inequality creates a gap between culturally defined goals and approved means of achieving them. This gap, termed anomie, leads to adaptations like conformity, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion, and innovation. It explains how individuals strive to bridge the gap between societal expectations and opportunities available to them, with innovation sometimes manifesting as criminal behavior. Conflict Theory Focus: It revolves around how powerful groups assert control over others through deviance and crime. Lawmaking and Social Control: Conflict theorists analyze why laws are made, who they benefit, and how certain groups impose control over others' behavior. They contest the idea of impartial justice and argue that the law reflects the interests of the powerful. Examples of Inequity: Conflict theorists highlight disparities in the justice system, such as leniency toward white-collar crimes committed by the wealthy versus stricter penalties for lower-class crimes. They also examine the disproportionate incarceration rates of Indigenous and black populations, exposing systemic biases. Symbolic Interactionism chapter ten. 8 Labelling Theory: This approach suggests that individuals internalize and act according to the labels society assigns them. It emphasizes how society defines and applies deviant labels to specific individuals, affecting their self-perception and behavior. Stigma and its Impact: Stigma, which is a mark of social disgrace, discredits individuals and groups. Societal labels, such as those related to race, gender, or body image, can lead to stereotypes, discrimination, and profiling, affecting individuals' identities and opportunities. Feminism Gender and Crime: Feminist theorists explore gender-based differences in experiences of deviance and crime. They focus on how society perceives and treats crimes based on gender, highlighting the stigmatization of women in certain situations, such as teenage pregnancy or sexual assault. Advocacy and Reform: Feminists advocate for changing laws around crimes affecting women, such as sexual assault. They push for research specific to women's criminal behavior to enhance rehabilitation and deterrence strategies. Real-life Examples The Ghomeshi Case: Examines a high-profile case of alleged sexual assault where the burden of proof and societal misconceptions about victim behavior were highlighted. Stigmatizing the Body: Discusses societal stigmatization, particularly regarding overweight individuals, examining efforts to challenge and redefine societal norms around body image. Diversity and the Criminal Justice System Non-Binary Individuals: Highlights the lack of criminological research and the challenges faced by non-binary people within the criminal justice system, emphasizing the need for understanding and inclusive practices. chapter ten. 9 📖 Main Points Highlights of the chapter. Deviance and Social Control: Folkways: Customs and behaviors in everyday life tied to normalized behavior. Breaking them leads to social disapproval but no serious repercussions. Mores: Social norms with moral significance. Violating them leads to more severe consequences. Deviance and Social Norms: Deviance refers to actions that garner a negative response from a community, based on accepted standards and social expectations. Social Construction and Subjectivity: Deviance is socially constructed and subjective, varying across cultures and time periods. Social Control: Methods and institutions influencing conformity, involving formal (laws) and informal (gossip, stigma) means. Identity as Deviance: Some individuals are considered deviant solely due to their identity, leading to various forms of social control. Crime: Definition: Crime refers to actions formally prohibited by criminal law, addressed through state authority. Criminology studies its causes, prevention, and rehabilitation. Crime vs. Deviance: Not all deviant actions are crimes, and not all crimes are perceived as deviant by society. Social Construction of Deviance: Society's evolving perceptions shape what is considered criminal or deviant. Victimless Crimes and Reporting: Some crimes have no direct victim. Underreporting is common, especially in cases like sexual assault. Dark Figure of Crime: The discrepancy between actual crimes and those reported, investigated, and convicted. chapter ten. 10 Trends in Crime Reporting: Property crimes outnumber violent ones, and while overall crime decreased from 1992 to 2012, recent years have shown an upward trend. Major Perspectives on Crime and Deviance: Rational Choice Theory: Assumes individuals make calculated choices before engaging in criminal acts, but may not apply universally. Reformist Approaches: Emphasized the role of punishment outweighing rewards in deterring crime. Biological Approaches: Early theories linked certain physical traits to criminal behavior. Sociological Approaches: Functionalism: Social disorganization theory highlighted societal changes' influence on crime patterns among the working class. Strain Theory (Robert Merton): Emphasized societal inequality leading to adaptation strategies, including crime. Conflict Theory: Focuses on how powerful groups control others through deviance and crime, highlighting disparities in the justice system. Symbolic Interactionism: Labelling theory emphasizes how society's labels affect self-perception and behavior. Feminism: Explores gender-based differences in crime experiences and advocates for changing laws and researching women's criminal behavior. Real-life Examples and Diversity in Justice System: Ghomeshi Case: High-profile case illustrating societal misconceptions and the burden of proof in sexual assault accusations. Stigmatizing the Body: Addresses societal stigmatization, especially regarding overweight individuals. Diversity in Justice System: Highlights the lack of research on non-binary individuals and the challenges they face within the criminal justice system.

chapter eight. 1 🖋 chapter eight. chapter eight. 2 🔑 Key Terms Affinal: A family relationship by marriage. Bilateral Descent: Both sides of your family are regarded as equally important. Cohabitation: An arrangement in which an unmarried couple lives together to find out if they are suitable. Divorce: A legal, formal dissolution of a legal marriage. Egalitarian Family: Where both spouses are regarded as equal. Endogamy: The Notes Details from the chapter. Introduction: Family Definition Evolution: George Murdock (1949) defined family as a social group with common residence, economic cooperation, reproduction, including adults in a sexual relationship, and children. David Popenoe (1993) suggested redefining family due to societal changes, proposing one adult and one dependent child as the minimum requirement. Functions of family include procreation, socialization, sexual regulation, economic cooperation, care, affection, and companionship. Importance of Definition: Legal and social definitions impact emergency visits, property rights, workplace benefits, etc. Sociologists aim to create inclusive definitions that encompass various family structures, whether with or without children and including chosen family members. Functions and Structure: Functions: Families care for physical and psychological needs, provide shelter, economic support, food, clothing, and education, and socialize children into cultural norms. Structure: Varies across cultures regarding family members' roles and relationships (e.g., polygamous marriages, same-sex marriages), with regional and legal differences (e.g., polygamy, civil partnerships). Variations and Universality: chapter eight. 3 requirement or expectation that people will marry within their own social group. Exogamy: The requirement or expectation that people will marry outside of their social group. Expressive Exchanges: Exchanges of emotional services between spouses. Extended Family: One in which two or more generations of relatives live together. Family: A social group containing two or more people who function as a unit for the purposes ofc While family structures and functions vary significantly across cultures and regions, families as an institution are cultural universals. Family Composition Extended Family vs. Nuclear Family: Different family household structures - extended family includes multiple generations and relatives, while the nuclear family consists of one or two parents and their children. Family Types: Polygamous Family in Bountiful, British Columbia: Highlighted in news, involving multiple marriages. Polygamy and sex with minors are illegal in Canada. Sister Wives TV Series: A glimpse into the lives of a polygamist family. Nuclear Family and Extended Family: Common family structures in society - nuclear family includes parents and children, while extended family involves multiple generations living together. Determining Kinship: Descent Systems: Different systems - bilateral (both sides equally important), patrilineal (focus on father's side), and matrilineal (dominance from mother's side). Patterns are related to societal authority. Influence of Family Structures: Relationship with Societal Structures: Family structures influenced by larger societal norms and legal imbalances. Matriarchal Societies: A few societies globally, including some Indigenous communities in Canada, where women hold greater authority. Theoretical Approaches to Family Functionalism: chapter eight. 4 economic cooperation, socialization, procreation, companionship, and emotional support. Homogamy: Marriage between people from similar sociological or educational backgrounds. Incest: Sexual relations between people classed as being too closely related to marry each other. Instrumental Exchanges: Non-emotional exchanges between spouses. They maintain the house in pratical ways. Kin Group: The total network of Focuses on family functions in society, including reproduction, protection, socialization, regulation, affection, and social/economic status. Emphasizes the family's role in ensuring the survival of individuals and society as a whole. Symbolic Interactionism: Concentrates on primary socialization within families, studying family interactions leading to the development of identity. Explores family decisions and dynamics, such as parental decisions during child sickness and the roles of step-family members. Conflict Theory: Highlights how industrialization changed family functions, shifting from self-sustaining agricultural units to an environment where adults work outside the home. Examines the power shift between men and women, economic relations affecting family conflicts, and the perpetuation of social injustice within families. Feminism: Views the family as an unequal and gendered social institution, not solely affected by capitalist class relations but also by gender relations. Identifies biases in family studies: monolithic, conservative, ageist, sexist, heterosexist, and racist biases, which affect how families are understood and represented. Mating and Union Formation: Social Relationships in the Family Affinal Relationship: chapter eight. 5 people related by common ancestry or adoption. Matriarchy: A society where women have greater authority than men. Matrilieneal Descent: The mother’s side of the family is dominant. Nuclear Family: The most commob type of family household in our society. It includes one or at most two generations of a family living together. Patrilieneal Descent: Only members of the father’s side of the family are important and pass down property and This refers to the chosen relationship between spouses, whether legally married or cohabiting. In North America, spouses are typically non-related consenting adults, although marriage applications in some states specify gender, potentially excluding non-binary individuals. Relationship Between Parent and Child: This bond spans generations and forms a fundamental family relationship. Union Formation and Marriage Dynamics: Romantic Love: In Canada, romantic love is a significant factor in union formation. People often enter long-term relationships based on love and the belief in soulmates. However, in some cultures, love plays a minor or non-existent role in marriage decisions, focusing more on practical considerations. Exchange Perspective: Views marriage as a balance of giveand-take, where both spouses engage in expressive (emotional) and instrumental (practical) exchanges, contributing to the relationship's stability. Economic Considerations: Economic concerns influence marriage decisions. With changing economic landscapes, many couples need dual incomes for a middle-class lifestyle, impacting marriage timing and arrangements. Mate Selection: Endogamy and Exogamy: Some societies practice endogamy, marrying within one's social group, while others practice exogamy, marrying outside one's social group. Homogamy: Similar people tend to marry each other in terms of age, education, physical attractiveness, social status, religion, and ethnicity. chapter eight. 6 inheritance and are responsible for maintaining emotional ties. Single-Parent Family: A family in which only one parent lives with dependent children. Arranged Marriages vs. Love Marriages: Arranged Marriages: Common in societies emphasizing family needs and property inheritance. Marriages are arranged by families, aiming to maintain family assets and minimize conflicts. Modern North American Ideals: Emphasize romantic love and free choice in marriage or cohabitation, sometimes considering arranged marriages as inferior, raising new relationship challenges. Child Care and Child Rearing Parenting Styles and Effectiveness: Baumrind's Parenting Patterns: Diana Baumrind's research suggests that the authoritative parenting style, characterized by love and supervision, yields better outcomes for children in terms of mental and physical health, academic success, social behavior, and law-abiding conduct. Effectiveness of Parenting Styles: North American research indicates that neglectful, harsh, or abusive parenting leads to poorer outcomes for children. However, research on the effectiveness of other parenting styles in different societies is limited. Universal Parenting Styles: There's debate regarding whether parenting style effectiveness is influenced by wider social structures or if there exist "universal" parenting styles that are more effective across different societies. Impact of Family Structure and Culture on Parenting: Variety of Family Structures: Effective parenting is possible across diverse family structures (e.g., same-sex, heterosexual, non-binary, cohabiting, married, nuclear, extended, singleparent households). Family problems like poverty, conflict, violence, and addiction can challenge effective parenting, but family structure itself might not be the main issue. chapter eight. 7 Parenting Challenges: Transitioning into parenthood is often challenging, straining marital relationships. Couples with children report lower marital satisfaction compared to those without children. Factors Affecting Child-Bearing Decisions: Decline in Parenthood: Over the past century, factors such as strain on relationships, financial difficulties in urban life, and economic hardships have contributed to the gradual decline in parenthood. Couples may opt to limit child-bearing due to financial concerns and lifestyle choices. Role of Contraception: Advances in contraceptive technology, like the contraceptive pill, have empowered individuals to plan their family size more effectively and have children when they desire. Demand for Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ARTs): Despite the decline in parenthood, there's still a demand for ARTs, such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), especially among individuals facing infertility issues. Trends in Family Life: Family Composition in Canada: Variety of Family Structures: Over the past 40 years, Canadian families have undergone significant changes. There has been an increase in families with both parents working, a decline in child-bearing and family size, and a notable rise in the variety of family compositions. Rise in Solo Living: A substantial proportion (28.2%) of Canadian households consist of individuals living alone, and over half of couples (51.1%) live without children. Cohabitation Trends: Decline in First Marriages: First marriage rates have decreased notably in Canada, particularly in Quebec, with chapter eight. 8 more young individuals choosing common-law unions over legal marriages. Definition of Cohabitation: Cohabitation refers to unmarried couples living together either to determine suitability, reduce living expenses, or as an alternative to marriage. In Canadian law, cohabitation over a specific duration becomes a legally binding relationship, entailing certain obligations. Katie and Jess's Perspective: Same-Sex Marriage Challenges: Katie and Jess, a same-sex couple, experienced challenges in societal acceptance, including coming out, loss of friendships, and communication gaps with family members due to their sexual orientation. Marriage Decision: They eventually legally married, motivated by both love and societal norms, despite facing similar relationship challenges as heterosexual couples. Starting a Family Challenges: Planning to start a family posed additional complexities for them, involving decisions about adoption, insemination methods, choosing a donor, associated costs, and finding supportive agencies for gay adoptions. Divorce and Single-Parent Families: Rise in Divorce Rates: Divorce rates have increased in Canada, with gendered differences observed in the short- and long-term outcomes following divorce. Men may experience a more immediate decline in well-being, while women often face long-term economic vulnerabilities. Single-Parent Families: The rise in divorce has led to an increase in single-parent families. Economic challenges often accompany such families, contributing to what sociologists term the feminization of poverty, where women and children constitute the majority of those living in poverty. Blended and Same-Sex Families: chapter eight. 9 Blended Families: Blended families, where parents bring children from previous relationships, pose unique challenges in managing different parenting styles and treating children equally. Same-Sex Families: Despite the rise in same-sex families, educational systems often overlook them. Data from the 2016 Census indicates a significant number of same-sex couples in Canada, with over 12% of them having children. Problems Related to the Family: Work-Family Balance: Shifts in Family Dynamics: Over the years, the number of dual-income households in Canada has significantly increased, with a decrease in families where only one parent works. Simultaneously, government cutbacks in support services have led to increased caregiving responsibilities for families, impacting the work-family balance. Gender Disparities: Despite movements towards a more equitable distribution of household tasks, women still predominantly bear the majority of the household and caregiving responsibilities. Women from higher socioeconomic backgrounds often manage work and family due to their ability to afford help, while immigrants, particularly women of color, may face challenges in transitioning to paid work. Immigrant Challenges: Immigrant women may have limited opportunities for paid work due to traditional gender roles and cultural expectations. Transitioning from patriarchal societies to more egalitarian settings may grant them autonomy but can strain relationships, leading to domestic conflict and violence. Family Violence: Historical Attitudes: In the past, family violence, including spousal and child abuse, was often tolerated. Laws and chapter eight. 10 societal norms reflected this tolerance, evident in the late recognition of marital rape as a crime in Canada. Feminist Perspective: Feminists assert that spousal and child abuse stem from patriarchal structures. Physical abuse against children often occurs in the context of spousal abuse, highlighting the interconnectedness of family violence. Reporting Disparities: Despite changes in laws and attitudes, a significant amount of family violence remains unreported. Women are more likely to report severe forms of violence, while men are more prone to experience less severe forms. Elder Abuse and Cultural Rejection: Elder abuse is recognized as mistreatment of older adults by their family members, violating cultural expectations of family support. In North America, family violence is less culturally rejected, contributing to psychological distress within families. World Events and Cultural Perspectives on Violence: Honour Killings: The comparison between domestic violence in North America and "honour killings" in the Middle East and South Asia highlights the similarities in gender-based violence. However, there's a stark contrast in how these issues are perceived culturally and in the media. Perception Differences: Despite similarities in violence patterns, cultural perceptions often influence how domestic violence is viewed and treated, affecting the support and legal responses for victims and perpetrators. chapter eight. 11 📖 Main Points Highlights of the chapter. Family Definition Evolution and Importance: Various definitions and functions of family have evolved over time. Definitions impact legal, social, and practical aspects of family life. Sociologists strive to create inclusive definitions to encompass diverse family structures. Family Functions, Structure, and Universality: Families perform vital functions like caregiving, socialization, and economic support. Family structures vary across cultures, including nuclear, extended, polygamous, and single-parent families. Despite variations, families are cultural universals, integral to societies worldwide. Theoretical Approaches to Family: Functionalism emphasizes family functions for individual and societal survival. Symbolic Interactionism studies family interactions shaping identity. Conflict Theory examines power dynamics, economic relations, and social injustices within families. Feminism views the family as an unequal, gendered institution affected by societal biases. Mating, Union Formation, and Marriage Dynamics: Relationships within families, like affinal relationships and parent-child bonds, form crucial social connections. Union formation often involves factors like romantic love, economic considerations, and cultural norms. Different cultures practice various marriage traditions, from arranged marriages to modern North American ideals. chapter eight. 12 Child Care, Parenting Styles, and Family Influences: Baumrind's parenting styles highlight authoritative parenting as most effective for children. Family structure and culture influence effective parenting across diverse family compositions. Factors like economic status, relationships, and contraception impact childbearing decisions. Trends in Family Life: Canadian family compositions have diversified over the years, including a rise in solo living and cohabitation trends. Same-sex, blended, single-parent families have become more prevalent, presenting unique challenges. Divorce rates have increased, leading to an upsurge in single-parent and blended families. Problems Related to the Family: Work-family balance challenges persist due to shifts in family dynamics and gender disparities. Family violence, influenced by historical attitudes and patriarchal structures, remains a concern. Elder abuse and differences in cultural perspectives on violence, like honour killings, raise awareness of societal attitudes toward domestic violence.

chapter nine. chapter nine. 2 🔑 Key Terms Apartheid: A policy that is founded on the idea of separating people based on racial or ethnic criteria. Assimilation: A process by which one forgoes their own culture and traditions and assumes the traits of the dominant group. Charter Groups: A group representing the most typical culture of a host community. The charter group creates a system that segregates it from other 'ethno-groups', Notes Details from the chapter. Introduction: Ethnic, Racial, and Religious Conflicts: Global conflicts emphasize the need for political arrangements that respect and acknowledge ethnic differences. Canada's colonial history has perpetuated violence against Indigenous communities and other marginalized groups at various points in its existence. Discrimination against different ethnicities and religions has been prevalent in Canada, targeting groups like Chinese immigrants, Muslim populations, and Black individuals, leading to social tensions and conflicts. Intersecting Group Conflicts: Intergroup conflicts are not isolated; they exist within Canadian towns and cities, impacting society significantly. Understanding ethnic and racial categories is crucial for peaceful coexistence and addressing real consequences of discrimination. Social Constructs and Ethnic/Racial Differences: Societies and social institutions are constructs shaped by daily performances and imagination. Scientific evidence reveals minimal genetic differences between races or ethnic groups, emphasizing that racial and ethnic disparities are socially constructed, not based on genetic realities. The Concepts of Ethnicity and Race: Ethnicity and Race as Social Constructs: Both ethnicity and race are social constructs, not based on inherent traits, but rather on visible physical differences that people attribute authority to. chapter nine. 3 who may be gradually assimilated, but in such a way that the charter group maintains its dominance. Contact Hypothesis: Contends that interracial and inter-ethnic contact between people of equal class status will result in their abandoning previous stereotypes and becoming less prejudiced and racist. Discrimination: Refers to actions carried out against another person or group because of their group membership. Ethnicity: Refers to These constructs impact societal interactions and how individuals perceive each other. Similarities and Differences between Ethnicity and Race: Ethnicity involves a shared culture, language, religion, national origin, and memories of colonization and migration, creating a sense of unity among members of an ethnic group. Race is based on shared or similar physical characteristics and appearance, not on shared history, culture, or genetics. Scientifically, there are more genetic differences between individuals of the same race than between individuals of different races. Fluidity and Perceptions of Race and Ethnicity: The concepts of race and ethnicity may or may not overlap and can be fluid. Definitions are based on assumptions, biases, and stereotypes, often changing over time. Historical and cultural contexts have influenced the classification of individuals based on race or ethnicity, leading to varying societal perceptions and categorizations. Social Significance of Race and Ethnicity: People treated as members of a specific category, whether racial or ethnic, form a unity based on shared experiences of being perceived as part of that category. Despite being social constructs, race and ethnicity have significant societal effects, influencing decisions related to friendships, partnerships, employment, housing, and more. Minority Groups and Visible Minorities: In sociology, minority groups are those with limited economic and social power compared to the dominant group, leading to limited control over their lives. chapter nine. 4 people with a common culture, language, religion, and/or national origin. Exception Fallacy: A flawed principle of logic in which an observer makes conclusions about an entire group based on observed behaviour of a nonrepresentative sample of individuals. Exploitation Theory: Contends that racism keeps minority group members in low-paying jobs, supplying capitalists with a cheap reserve army of labour. Genocide: The deliberate The term "visible minority" in Canada refers to individuals who are neither Indigenous nor white, highlighting racial categorization and societal dynamics based on power structures. Prejudice and Discrimination: Prejudice: Prejudice refers to a negative or hostile attitude towards a group of people based on their membership in that group. It often involves stereotypes, which are fixed mental images used to categorize people based on exaggerated characteristics, contributing to prejudiced views. The "exception fallacy" occurs when individuals form stereotypes based on observations of a non-representative sample of individuals from a group. Discrimination: Discrimination involves actions carried out against individuals or groups due to their group membership, resulting in unequal treatment, denial of opportunities, or unequal rewards for the same work. Racism is a common form of discrimination, occurring when prejudice about a racial group is infused with power and supported by social structures, leading to systemic prejudice and discrimination. Racism and White Privilege: Racism refers to systemic prejudice and discrimination by the dominant racial group against subordinate racial groups in a society. White privilege signifies inherent benefits and advantages experienced in a racially unequal society solely by virtue of being white, affecting various aspects of life from daily interactions to systemic social structures. Othering and Media Perpetuation of Racism: chapter nine. 5 extermination of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic group or nation. Islamophobia: Open hostility toward all Muslims based on fear. Othering: When we classify someone as “not one of us”. Pluralism: Where minority ethnic groups are able to maintain their unique cultural practices and identities while a dominant culture is retained. Minority Groups: Othering involves classifying individuals as "not one of us," dehumanizing them based on stereotypes associated with their group. Media perpetuates racism through biased reporting, such as portraying different racial groups in natural disasters differently (e.g., describing looting by black individuals but finding by white individuals). Real-life Examples of Discrimination: Various examples from news, personal experiences, and studies illustrate racial discrimination in different settings like the service industry, housing rentals, and job markets. Critical Race Theory and Ending Racism: Critical race theory explores how social institutions maintain racial oppression, emphasizing the need to acknowledge and understand the experiences of individuals who face racism to dismantle such structures. Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity: Functionalism: Functionalists stress common desires shared by all people, expecting that most ethnic differences will eventually disappear from society. They view remaining differences as largely "symbolic," influencing personal identity but having minimal practical consequences in everyday life. Functionalists identify four dysfunctions associated with racism, including society not maximizing its resources, aggravating social problems like poverty and crime, excessive investment in barriers to inclusion, and impacts on international relationships. They generally believe that racism will resolve itself. Symbolic Interactionism: chapter nine. 6 Groups who have limited ecomonic and social power and therefore, limited control over their own lives. Prejudice: A negative, hostile social attitude toward members of another group. Race: Defined in terms of shared (or similar) physical characteristics and appearance, not a shared history, culture, or genetics. Racism: Refers to circumstances where prejudice, or holding opinions based on stereotypes about a particular Symbolic interactionists focus on personal experiences within minority status, examining the impact of negative ethnic stereotypes on an individual's sense of self. They emphasize the links between race, ethnicity, and identity, exploring how these identities are created and maintained. Interactionists support the contact hypothesis, suggesting that interracial and inter-ethnic contact between people of equal status will reduce prejudice and stereotypes as individuals see each other beyond learned stereotypes. Conflict Theory: Conflict theorists, using a Marxist approach, highlight the harmful consequences of race and ethnicity-based prejudice and discrimination on society. They propose the exploitation theory, stating that racism keeps minority group members in low-paying jobs, providing capitalists with a cheap labor force. However, critics argue that this reduction of racism to a class dynamic overlooks the complexity of racial oppression. Feminism: Feminism comprises diverse perspectives, with some earlier feminist movements criticized for their limited focus on issues affecting white, cisgender, middle-class, heterosexual, and ablebodied women. Historical examples, such as the fight for women's suffrage in Canada, highlight the exclusion of Asian and Indigenous women, shedding light on the discriminatory practices perpetuated by some feminist figures. Anti-racist and critical race feminism, influenced by contributions from black, Indigenous, and racialized women, emphasize that gender isn't the sole source of oppression. They advocate recognizing the intersectionality of gender identity, race, age, chapter nine. 7 racial group, is infused with power. Reserve: A place set aside for a particular use. Segregation: The physical separation of groups of people in terms of residence, workplace, and other social structures. Stereotype: Fixed mental images that prejudiced people think encompass all members of a given group. Systemic Discrimination: A form of institutional discrimination against individuals of a given protected characteristic such as race or ability, and sexuality to understand different experiences of inequality. Ethnic Groups Within Canada: Indigenous Peoples: Indigenous Peoples in Canada are diverse, comprising of First Nations, Métis, and Inuit communities with distinct cultural backgrounds, languages, and historical experiences. While there's a shared Indigenous identity due to systemic barriers, discrimination, and attempted genocide by the Canadian state, Indigenous groups encompass varied nations, cultures, and ethnicities. The Indigenous population in Canada, making up about 5% of the total, is predominantly young and growing. Despite efforts to address injustices, Indigenous people face disproportionate challenges, including poverty, lower educational attainment, higher rates of health issues, interactions with the criminal justice system, and lower life expectancy compared to non-Indigenous Canadians. Charter Groups: British and French charter groups historically shaped Canada's institutions, maintaining political, economic, and social dominance within the country. Even though they constitute a smaller fraction of the population today, charter group members retain significant influence in Canadian society. Visible/Racialized Minorities: Non-Indigenous racialized groups, such as Black and Chinese immigrants, have been part of Canadian history since early settlement. Throughout history, racialized minorities have faced various forms of discrimination and exclusion, including head taxes, chapter nine. 8 gender which has the effect of restricting their opportunities. Visible Minority: Refers to those Canadian’s that are neither Indigenous, nor white. restrictive immigration laws, and racial profiling. Despite changes in immigration laws in the 1960s, visible minority and racialized immigrants continue to face discrimination, economic disparities, and barriers in Canada, especially in the workforce. Canadian-born visible minorities also experience wage gaps, higher unemployment rates, and discrimination compared to white Canadians. Current Research and World Events: Recent research highlights the experiences of senior immigrants in Canada, revealing racialization's negative impact on their life courses, leading to economic insecurity. Instances of racism and discrimination against racialized minorities persist in Canada, with hate crimes against Muslims, for instance, rising significantly in recent years. Globally, Islamophobia, stemming from stereotypes and media representation, has led to increased hostility and hate crimes against Muslims, despite statistical evidence of the rarity of terrorism carried out by Islamic extremists. Patterns of Intergroup Relations: Genocide: Defined as the deliberate extermination of a large group of people based on certain traits. Examples include the Holocaust, Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, Hutu massacres in Rwanda, and ongoing atrocities against Indigenous Peoples in Canada. In Canada, historical instances of genocide against Indigenous Peoples involved germ warfare, starvation, and malnutrition, leading to devastating population declines. Present-day issues persist, such as lack of access to clean water in Indigenous communities due to past discrimination and present chapter nine. 9 government inaction. Expulsion: Involves forcing a minority group to leave a region or confining them to specific locations. Examples include the expulsion of ethnic Chinese from Vietnam and the displacement of millions in Sudan. Canada's history includes the deportation of Acadians and the forced internment of Japanese Canadians during World War II. Segregation: Physical separation of groups in residence, workplace, and social structures. Examples include racial segregation in the Southern United States and South Africa's apartheid policy. While segregation is no longer enforced in Canada, some unofficial racial and ethnic segregation still exists in certain areas. Assimilation: The process where minority groups adopt the traits of the dominant culture, often involuntarily. Examples include Japanese-Canadians forced to assimilate postWorld War II and pressure on individuals to change their names to sound more 'acceptable' in certain industries. Pluralism and Multiculturalism: Pluralism allows minority ethnic groups to maintain their unique cultural practices while coexisting with a dominant culture. Multiculturalism advocates for distinct and separate ethnicities and cultures without a dominant culture. While Canada claims to be multicultural, its policy often resembles pluralism, aiming to protect minority groups while promoting assimilation. chapter nine. 10 📖 Main Points Highlights of the chapter. 1. Ethnic, Racial, and Religious Conflicts: Global conflicts underscore the necessity of political arrangements acknowledging and respecting ethnic differences. Canada's colonial history perpetuated violence against Indigenous communities and marginalized groups. Discrimination against various ethnicities and religions has been prevalent in Canada, causing social tensions and conflicts. 2. Social Constructs of Ethnicity and Race: Ethnicity and race are social constructs, not based on inherent traits, but rather on visible physical differences. These constructs significantly influence societal interactions and individual perceptions. 3. Minorities, Prejudice, and Discrimination: Minority groups lack economic and social power compared to the dominant group, leading to limited control over their lives. Prejudice involves negative attitudes towards a group, often stemming from stereotypes, while discrimination involves unequal treatment based on group membership. 4. Racism, White Privilege, and Othering: Racism encompasses systemic prejudice and discrimination by the dominant racial group against subordinate groups. White privilege signifies inherent benefits experienced by white individuals in a racially unequal society. Othering involves classifying individuals as "not one of us," based on stereotypes associated with their group. 5. Theoretical Perspectives on Race and Ethnicity: chapter nine. 11 Functionalists believe ethnic differences will eventually disappear, while symbolic interactionists focus on personal experiences within minority status. Conflict theorists highlight the harmful consequences of racial prejudice and discrimination on society, emphasizing the exploitation theory. Feminism explores gender-based oppression, but some feminist movements historically excluded racialized women. 6. Ethnic Groups in Canada: Indigenous Peoples in Canada are diverse, facing systemic barriers and discrimination despite varied cultural backgrounds. British and French charter groups historically shaped Canada's institutions, retaining significant influence despite a smaller population. Visible/racialized minorities in Canada, such as Black and Chinese immigrants, have faced historical discrimination and economic disparities. 7. Patterns of Intergroup Relations: Genocide, expulsion, segregation, and assimilation represent ways dominant groups interact with minority groups. Genocide involves deliberate extermination, expulsion forces groups to leave or be confined, segregation physically separates groups, and assimilation entails adopting traits of the dominant culture. Pluralism allows minority groups to maintain cultural practices, while multiculturalism advocates for distinct cultures without a dominant one.

chapter 7chapter seven. chapter seven. 2 🔑 Key Terms Binary Construction: People can only fit into one of the two mutally exclusive and opposite groups. Doing Drag: Refers to stylistic performances where individuals dress up as a different gender than the one they were assigned at birth. Emphasized Feminity: The most culturally valued form of feminity. Women are expected to look their best at all times, and be Notes Details from the chapter. Introduction: Binary and Limited Options: The survey questions often present only two options—Male or Female—failing to acknowledge the existence of non-binary, genderqueer, or gender-nonconforming individuals. This binary construction neglects the diversity and complexity of gender identity. Limited Understanding: The survey questions' binary nature reflects a lack of understanding or acknowledgment of the complexities of gender identity within society. It overlooks the need for inclusive language that respects and represents the diverse spectrum of gender identities. Sex and Gender: Sex as a Biological Concept: Sex refers to biological differences in anatomy, genetics, and hormones, leading to the classification of humans into male and female categories based on perceived physical differences. This division represents a binary construction, creating two mutually exclusive groups. Complexity of Human Biology: Human biology rarely fits neatly into the traditional definitions of male or female. Chromosome configurations can be diverse (e.g., XX, XY, XYY, XXY), and there's no clear hormonal threshold that defines someone as male or female. Most hospitals don't conduct DNA testing before assigning a sex at birth. Biological Differences and Social Life: Biological differences, such as having a working womb, do not determine a person's desires or abilities related to parenting. These biological variations have minimal, if any, direct effects on modern-day social interactions. Gender and Gender Roles: Definition of Gender: Gender refers to cultural beliefs, assumptions, and structures surrounding biological sex. Gender roles are learned chapter seven. 3 able to accomodate male desires. Feminity: All qualities that we associate with women. Gender: The cultural beliefs, assumptions, and structures around biological sex. Gender Roles: Learned patterns of behaviour that a society expects of men and women. Gender Stratification: A hierarchical system of categorization based on gender. Gendered Divison of Labour: patterns of behavior expected from men and women based on societal perceptions of masculinity and femininity. Expectations of Behavior: Society expects specific behaviors from individuals based on their assigned gender roles, influencing various aspects of life, including relationships, education, and work. Dominant Forms of Masculinity and Femininity: Hegemonic masculinity (e.g., strength, assertiveness) and emphasized femininity (e.g., attractiveness, supportiveness) are the most culturally valued forms in North American society. Challenges to Binary Constructions: Intersex Individuals: Intersex individuals are born with indistinct genitalia or chromosomes that defy easy classification into male or female. Historical surgical interventions often determined a baby's gender, but current medical advice supports allowing intersex individuals to decide their gender identity later in life. Prevalence of Intersex Characteristics: Statistics suggest that intersex conditions are more common than previously thought, challenging the binary categorization of sex. Transgender Identity: Transgender individuals don't conform easily to normative male-female categories. The term "transgender" encompasses a range of individuals whose gender identity doesn't align with their assigned sex at birth. Transitioning may involve surgery, hormone replacement, or changes in gender presentation. Societal Impacts and Perspectives: Impact of Strict Constructions: Stricter categorizations of biological sex and gender roles lead to unnecessary surgeries and can create social constraints for individuals whose identities don't conform to societal norms. Cultural and Historical Variations: Different cultures and historical contexts view gender diversity differently. For instance, some Indigenous cultures recognize and honor individuals with diverse gender identities, like two-spirit people. Diversity in Gender Expression: chapter seven. 4 Refers to the fact that women are more likely to have jobs that pay less, have lower prestige, require longer hours of work, and are less likely to be full-time than men. Gendered Wage Gap: Women are paid less than men. Glass Ceiling: An invisible barrier. Glass Escalator: A semiinvisible advantage. Hegemonic Masculinity: The ideal form of masculinity that boys are Fluidity of Gender Identity: Gender identity can be fluid and may not align with assigned sex at birth. Some individuals may do drag as a performance without wanting to change their identity permanently. Cultural Perspectives on Gender Diversity: Some Indigenous cultures acknowledge and respect individuals with diverse gender identities, highlighting that the gender binary is a social construction. Gender and Agents of Socialization Family Prenatal Gender Socialization: Gender socialization starts before birth, with parents adhering to gender stereotypes by decorating nurseries and buying gender-specific items based on the perceived sex of the fetus. Postnatal Gender Differentiation: Parents assign gender-specific names and receive gender-coded gifts, despite babies lacking color vision initially. Interactions with babies and young children differ based on their perceived sex, affecting parental responses to crying and punishment. Gendered Household Tasks: Household tasks are often gendered, with boys given outdoor chores while girls are assigned indoor chores. Education Gender-Specific Facilities: Educational institutions reinforce gender norms with separate washrooms, change rooms, sports teams, and activities. Students are asked to line up based on gender, reinforcing the binary concept. Differential Treatment: Teachers treat boys and girls differently, with girls praised for neatness and boys praised for academic achievements, leading to unequal reinforcement of abilities and expectations. Gendered Enrollment in Fields: Despite increasing female participation in post-secondary education, fields of study remain gender-segregated. Women dominate in health and social sciences, while men dominate in engineering and math, reflecting gendered socialization. chapter seven. 5 supposed to strive to achieve by adulthood. Ideology of Gender: A set of widespread social beliefs that gender is a binary and that there are natural differences between men and women. Intersex: People who are born with indistinct genitalia and/or a combination of chromosomes that do not allow for an easy categorization of male or female at birth. Masculinity: Qualities that people Media Disney Stereotypes: Classic Disney movies portray princesses as dependent on men, reinforcing stereotypes of beauty, helplessness, and rescue by a male savior. Shifting Gender Portrayals: Recent Disney films introduce more dynamic and independent female characters, potentially reflecting broader societal changes. Fifty Shades of Grey: Despite its sexual content, Fifty Shades of Grey portrays dynamics similar to traditional Disney films, reinforcing stereotypes of a wealthy, handsome man rescuing a young woman. Advertising and Gendered Portrayals: Advertising often sexualizes women and portrays men as strong and capable, perpetuating gender stereotypes. Activists like Jean Kilbourne emphasize how women, especially racialized women, are objectified in ads. Media's Role in Masculinity: Scholars like Jackson Katz argue that media play a significant role in reinforcing aggressive masculinity, associating violence with being a man through films like Tough Guise. Gender Division Gendered Division of Labour: Women are more likely to occupy jobs that pay less, have lower prestige, require longer hours, and are less likely to offer full-time positions with benefits. Gender Stratification: Traits associated with masculinity are often valued more positively, while traits associated with femininity are devalued, leading to societal power imbalances. Gender Wage Gap: Despite gains in female labor force participation, a gendered wage gap persists. Women in full-time jobs earned around 74% of what men earned in 2017, with more significant disparities for black, Indigenous, and disabled women. Occupational Gendering and Ideology: Certain professions remain gendered, with nurses being paid significantly less than doctors, reflecting the historical occupational gendering where nurses are seen as assistants to doctors. chapter seven. 6 associate with men. Matrix of Domination: The ways that race, class, ethnicity, and disability intersect with gender, making inequality even more pronounced for those who expierence these multiple forms. Operant Conditioning: Gender appropriate behaviours are rewarded and signs of gender deviance are punished. Pink Ghetto: One facet of the gender wage gap issue. Many jobs remain Influences on Aspirations: Societal gender norms can influence individuals' career aspirations. The roles attributed to each gender may act as barriers or facilitators to one's career choices. Jordan Peterson's View: Peterson's perspective that women self-select into nurturing roles due to personality differences is challenged by sociologists who investigate various factors shaping women's job choices. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Functionalism: Functionalists view gender differences as natural and beneficial for society, with men typically fulfilling instrumental roles (providing financially) and women taking on expressive roles (child-rearing, household care). They believe that maintaining traditional gender roles contributes to social cohesion but may overlook the unequal aspects of these roles, such as women managing both work and household duties. Conflict Theory: Conflict theorists, like Engels, attribute gender inequality to class and property relations. Engels linked gender inequality to the rise of private property, where men's domination heightened due to concerns about inheritance. They suggest that only by eliminating capitalism will traditional gender roles change, leading to gender equality. Symbolic Interactionism: Symbolic interactionists focus on how individuals embody and perform gender, learning gendered expectations through socialization agents like family, education, and media. They emphasize how operant conditioning reinforces genderappropriate behaviors through rewards and punishments, leading to the construction and reinforcement of gender differences. Feminism: Feminist sociology emerged in response to women's experiences of inequality, gaining momentum with increased female sociologists in the 1970s. chapter seven. 7 segregated by gender. Second Shift: Describes the double burden of work and housework that women in the labour force experience. Sex: A biological concept based on the differences between humans that are anatomic, genetic, and hormonal. Sexual Harassment: Another form of gendered violence. Transgender: An umbrella term for a range of individuals that do not easily fit, or Feminist sociologists stress that gender roles are social constructs rather than natural, challenging the traditional male-centric views of sociology. Judith Butler's work in "Gender Trouble" questions the idea of genders being inherently tied to biological sex, proposing that gender and sexuality are performative rather than intrinsic. Feminist scholars like Patricia Hill Collins highlight intersections of gender with race, ethnicity, class, and disability, emphasizing the compounded effects of multiple sources of inequality, termed the "matrix of domination." chapter seven. 8 categorize themselves, into the normative categories of male and female. Two-Spirit: Describes how a person’s secual, gender, and/or sprititual identity includes both a masculine, and a feminine spirit. chapter seven. 9 📖 Main Points Highlights of the chapter. Introduction: The binary options in surveys neglect non-binary individuals, indicating a limited understanding of gender complexity. It fails to recognize sex's biological nuances and its limited role in influencing modern social interactions. Sex and Gender: Sex focuses on biological differences but often fails to encapsulate the complexity of human biology. Biological differences don't determine abilities or desires, particularly in social interactions. Gender and Gender Roles: Gender refers to cultural beliefs surrounding biological sex, leading to societal expectations about behavior. Expectations from hegemonic masculinity and emphasized femininity heavily influence societal perceptions. Challenges to Binary Constructions: Intersex individuals and transgender identities challenge normative male-female categories. Statistical prevalence of intersex conditions questions the rigid categorization of sex. Societal Impacts and Perspectives: Strict categorizations can lead to unnecessary surgeries and societal constraints. Cultural variations in gender diversity exist across different societies and historical contexts. Diversity in Gender Expression: Gender identity can be fluid, not necessarily aligning with assigned sex at birth. chapter seven. 10 Some Indigenous cultures recognize diverse gender identities, challenging the notion of a strict gender binary. Gender and Agents of Socialization: Family: Gender socialization begins prenatally and continues postnatally, influencing household tasks based on perceived gender. Education: Educational institutions reinforce gender norms through facilities and differential treatment. Media: Portrayals in media, including Disney stereotypes, Fifty Shades of Grey, and advertising, perpetuate gender stereotypes and norms. Gender Division: Gendered division of labor, gender stratification, and the gender wage gap reflect societal inequalities. Influences on Aspirations: Societal gender norms can influence career aspirations and choices. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender: Functionalism views gender differences as beneficial for society's stability but may overlook unequal aspects. Conflict Theory attributes gender inequality to class and property relations, suggesting that eliminating capitalism could promote gender equality. Symbolic Interactionism emphasizes how individuals embody and perform gender, learning gendered expectations through socialization. Feminism challenges traditional views, considering gender roles as social constructs and highlighting intersections with race, ethnicity, class, and disability in creating inequalities