AP Psychology Mega Review Notes

Interaction of Heredity and Environment (Nature vs. Nurture)

  • Nature (Heredity): Genetic predispositions influencing physical, behavioral, and mental traits.

  • Nurture (Environment): External factors like family interactions and education.

  • Interactionist Perspective: Genetics and environment interact to shape behavior, personality, and development.

Evolutionary Perspective

  • Natural selection favors traits ensuring survival and reproductive success.

  • Traits less useful for survival become less pronounced.

  • Eugenics: Debunked theory misusing evolutionary psychology to justify discrimination by encouraging reproduction of "desirable" traits and preventing "undesirable" traits.

  • Eugenics is rejected for denying human dignity and ignoring trait development complexity.

Research on Nature vs. Nurture

  • Twin Studies:

    • Compare identical twins (almost 100% shared genes) and fraternal twins (about 50% shared genes).

    • Greater similarity in identical twins suggests a genetic role.

    • Studying twins raised separately helps determine environmental impact.

  • Family Studies: Examine trait prevalence among parents, siblings, and relatives.

    • Higher trait occurrence in close relatives suggests a genetic role.

    • Difficult to separate genetic and environmental influences.

  • Adoption Studies: Compare adopted children to biological and adoptive families.

    • More similarity to biological parents indicates genetic influence.

    • More similarity to adoptive parents points to environmental influence.

  • These studies inform our understanding of intelligence, personality, and disease risks.

  • Reinforces the interactionist perspective where nature and nurture both shape development.

Overview of the Nervous System

  • The nervous system is the body's communication network.

  • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.

  • Brain: Command center for thoughts, emotions, movement, and vital functions.

  • Spinal Cord: Relays messages between the brain and body and is key for reflexes.

  • Reflexes: Automatic responses to stimuli (e.g., pulling hand away from a hot object).

  • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Extends beyond the brain and spinal cord.

  • Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary bodily functions.

    • Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for stress (fight or flight) by increasing heart rate and adrenaline release.

    • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body after stress (rest and digest) by slowing heart rate and promoting digestion.

  • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements.

    • Enables conscious muscle movement (e.g., walking, writing).

    • The brain sends signals for intentional interaction with the world.

The Neuron and Neural Firing

  • Neural Cells: Neurons and glial cells.

  • Neurons: Carry electrical and chemical signals.

  • Glial Cells: Support neurons by maintaining structure, insulating, facilitating communication, and removing waste.

  • Reflex Arc: Rapid, automatic response to stimuli without brain input.

    • Sensory Neurons: Detect stimuli and send signals to the spinal cord.

    • Interneurons: Process information and relay it to motor neurons.

    • Motor Neurons: Send signals to muscles to produce a response (e.g., pulling away from a hot object).

  • Neural Transmission: Process for all thoughts, emotions, and movements.

    • Resting Potential: Neuron has a stable charge at rest.

    • Threshold: Stimulation level needed to trigger an action potential.

    • Depolarization: Electrical signal travels down the neuron adhering to the "all or nothing principle".

    • All-or-Nothing Principle: Neuron fires completely or not at all.

    • Refractory Period: Brief moment when the neuron cannot fire again.

    • Neurotransmitters: Chemicals released into the synapse to transmit signals between neurons.

    • Reuptake: Reabsorption of neurotransmitters or their breakdown.

  • Disruptions to Neural Transmission:

    • Multiple Sclerosis: Damage to the protective covering of neurons, slowing signals.

    • Myasthenia Gravis: Disrupted communication between neurons and muscles, causing weakness.

  • Types of Neurotransmitters:

    • Excitatory: Makes a neuron more likely to fire.

    • Inhibitory: Makes a neuron less likely to fire.

    • Dopamine: Movement, motivation, reward system.

    • Serotonin: Mood, appetite, sleep.

    • Norepinephrine: Alertness, stress response.

    • Glutamate: Main excitatory neurotransmitter, learning, memory.

    • GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid): Main inhibitory neurotransmitter, regulates neural activity.

    • Endorphins: Natural painkillers, pleasure.

    • Substance P: Transmits pain signals.

    • Acetylcholine: Muscle movement, attention, memory.

  • Hormones: Released into the bloodstream, slower but longer-lasting effects.

    • Adrenaline: Prepares the body for action during stress.

    • Leptin & Ghrelin: Regulate hunger, with leptin signaling fullness and ghrelin increasing appetite.

    • Melatonin: Regulates sleep cycles.

    • Oxytocin: Social bonding, trust, and emotional connection.

  • Psychoactive Drugs: Alter neural activity by interfering with neurotransmitter function.

    • Agonists: Mimic neurotransmitters, enhancing neural firing.

    • Antagonists: Block neurotransmitters, reducing neural activity.

    • Interfere with reuptake, prolonging neurotransmitter effects.

    • Stimulants: (e.g., caffeine, cocaine) Increase neural activity.

    • Depressants: (e.g., sedatives) Slow neural activity.

    • Hallucinogens: (e.g., marijuana) Distort perception.

    • Opioids: (e.g., heroin) Act as pain relievers by mimicking endorphins.

    • Tolerance: The body requires larger doses to achieve the same effect.

    • Addiction: Brain becomes dependent on the drug.

    • Withdrawal: Physical and psychological distress when drug use stops.

Structures of the Brain

  • Brainstem: Oldest part, basic life functions.

    • Medulla: Regulates breathing, heart rate, and digestion.

    • Reticular Activating System: Regulates alertness and attention, and influences sleep-wake cycles.

  • Brain's Reward Center: Reinforces survival behaviors (eating or socializing).

  • Cerebellum: Coordination, balance, and procedural learning (muscle memory).

  • Cerebral Cortex: Largest part, divided into hemispheres.

  • Limbic System: Regulates emotions, memory, and motivation.

    • Thalamus: Relay center for sensory information.

    • Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis, hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

    • Pituitary Gland: Controls hormone release.

    • Hippocampus: Forming and retrieving memories.

    • Amygdala: Processing emotions, especially fear and aggression.

  • Cerebral Cortex Lobes:

    • Occipital Lobes: Process visual information.

    • Temporal Lobes: Auditory processing and language comprehension.

    • Parietal Lobes: Association areas interpret sensory information.

      • Somatosensory Cortex: Processes touch, temperature, and pain.

    • Frontal Lobes: Higher-order thinking, decision making, and executive functioning.

      • Prefrontal Cortex: Reasoning, impulse control, and personality.

      • Motor Cortex: Directs voluntary movement.

  • Split Brain Research:

    • The corpus callosum is severed, preventing hemispheres from communicating.

    • The left hemisphere processes language (Broca's area: speech production, Wernicke's area: speech comprehension).

    • Damage results in aphasia (language ability).
      If a spoon is placed in the left hand of a split-brain patient, the right hemisphere knows the object by touch, but the patient cannot verbally identify the object because the information cannot cross to the language centers.

  • Brain Plasticity: Ability to adapt and reorganize.

  • Brain Study Techniques:

    • EEGs (Electroencephalograms): Measure electrical activity.

    • fMRIs (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Track blood flow.

    • Case Studies: Examine effects of brain injuries.

    • Surgical Procedures: Create lesions to study brain region effects.

Sleep

  • Sleep-Wake Cycle: Regulated by the biological circadian rhythm.

    • Disruptions (jet lag, shift work) negatively impact cognitive and physical functioning.

  • Sleep Stages:

    • NREM Sleep: Stages 1-3, progressively deeper.

      • Stage 1: Lightest, hypnagogic sensations.

      • Stage 2: Transitional, preparing for deep sleep.

      • Stage 3: Deepest, physical restoration.

    • REM Sleep: Brain activity resembles wakefulness due to temporary muscle paralysis, dreaming occurs.

      • REM rebound happens after deprivation causing one to enter REM more quickly when next sleeping.

  • Psychological Theories About Dreams:

    • Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from random neural activity.

    • Consolidation Theory: Dreams help process and store memories.

  • Functions of Sleep:

    • Memory consolidation.

    • Energy restoration.

  • Sleep Disorders:

    • Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.

    • Narcolepsy: Sudden uncontrollable sleep episodes.

    • REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: Lack of REM paralysis, acting out dreams.

    • Sleep Apnea: Interrupted breathing during sleep.

    • Somnambulism: Sleepwalking.

Sensation

  • Sensation is converting environmental information into neural signals.

  • Absolute Threshold: The intensity at which a stimulus can be detected at least 50% of the time.

  • Just Noticeable Difference: Smallest detectable change in stimulus intensity.

  • Weber's Law: The ability to detect differences depends on the proportion of change rather than a fixed amount.

  • Sensory Adaptation: Reduced sensitivity to unchanging stimuli over time.

  • Sensory Interaction: Senses working together to enhance perception such as taste being influenced by smell.

  • Synesthesia: Stimulation of one sense triggers experiences in another.

  • Visual Sensory System: Physical structures in the eye capture and process light

    • Retina: Contains cells that detect light and convert it into neural signals

    • Lens: Helps us achieve focus, adjusting focus for near or far objects

    • Rods: Detect shapes and movement, function in low light conditions

    • Cones: Process color and fine detail

    • Blind spot: Optic nerve exits the eye

  • Color vision:

    • Trichromatic theory: Sensitve to red, green and blue wavelengths

    • Opponent Process Theory: Opposing colors red green, blue yellow, and black white are processed together

  • Auditory system: How sounds can be heard

    • Sound occurs through movement of air molecules (pitch and amplitude)

    • Place theory: Differeent frequencies activate different locations

    • Frequency theory: Perception is based on how freqeuntly nuerons fire

    • Volley Theory: Neurons fire in alternating sequences to encode higher sound

  • Chemical Senses:

    • Olfaction (Smell): Processed in the brain, Detects molecules, leading us to scents

    • Gustation (Taste): Detects flavors from sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami and oleogustis

  • Sense of touch:

    • Specialized receptors in the skin that detect pressure, temerpature and pain.

    • Gate controll theory: Processed both in the body and the brain, suggests that Spinal Cord regulates the transmission of pain signals

    • Phantom limp sensation: Experiencing pain or sensations in a limb that has been amputated, This indicates that pain is influenced by neural processing beyond physical stimuli.

  • Balance and coordinate movement:

    • Vestibular system: Located in the inner ear. senses movement by detecting changes in head position and sends signals to the brain, posture, coordination, and spatial awareness

    • Kinesthetic system: Movement detected in Muscles, joints and tendons, essential for walking, picking up objects, and maintaining posture

Perception

  • Perception is the way we understand and interpret the world around us.

  • Bottom-up processing: rely mostly on sensory information without using past experiences.

  • Top-down processing: happens when we use expectations and experiences

  • Shema: A detailed framework to tell you what you expect from categories

  • Assimilation: New information, but do not change our existing schema.

  • Accommadation: happens when new information forces a change in the schema itself

  • Algorithm: Step by step procedure that guarantees the right answer.

  • Heuristics: Mental shortcut or rule of thumb which simplifies problem solving

    • Representativeness Heuristics: How well it matches our exceptions

    • Availability heuristics: Make decision based on the first or most vivid example that come to mind.

  • Mental Sets: Reliance of strategies in past.

  • Priming: Exposure to certain stimuli influences our decisions.

  • Framing: Decision is presented, whether it is seen as gain or loss.

  • Gambler's Fallacy: Past events affect future probabilistic situations where outcomes are random.

  • Sunk cost fallacy: Investing time, money and effort into something

  • Executive functions: Mental Skills that set goals, make plans and remain organized

  • Creativity

    • Divergent Thinking: Exploring many unique possible solutions to a single problem

    • Convergent Thinking: single solution to the correct answer, less effective for creative solutions

Introduction to memory models

  • Explicit memory:

    • Episodic memory: Personal experiences. Tied to time and places

    • Semantic memory: Facts and concepts are not linked to Personal Experiences

  • Implicit memory:

    • Procedural memory: How do you perform tasks

    • Prospective memory: Remembering to do something later

  • Long Term Potentiation: When neurons in the brain repeatedly activate together

  • Working memory model :Temporial system that helps us hold and manipulate information while we use it.

    • Central executive attention

    • Phonological verbal information

    • Visuospatial Visual and spatial information

  • MultiStore model

    • Sensory memory Raw sensory information (iconic and echoic)

    • Short term memory Small amount of information for about 20-30 sec

    • Long term memory stored indefinitely

  • Levels of processing model: How we encode information
    Structural processing Remebering lookPhonemic Sound Like Semantic meaning

Encoding memories

  • Mnemonic Device: mental associations that make information easier to recall.

    • Method of LOKI associate information with spacific location

    • Acronyms First letter of each word

  • Organization: Grouping Information into meaningful groups.

    • chunking smaller

    • categorization Related

    • Hierarchies from general to spesific

  • Spacing Effect: Massed practice and distributed practice

    • Massed Practice Crammming

    • Distributed Practice: Studying in multiple shorter sessions over time

  • Serial Position effect:Remember information presented at the beginning and end of a list better than the ones in the middle.
    Primacy effect: beginning if first then
    Recency effect: last in the middle.

Storing Memories

  • Different Storage:

    • Sensory Memory: Holds sensory information for seconds.

    • Short-Term Memory: Small amount of information for about twenty to thirty seconds.

    • Working Memory: Helps us to hold information.

    • Long-Term Memory: Information is stored Indefinitely\There are two main forms of memory rehearsal: maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal.

  • Ways to prolonging memory stores
    Maintenance rehearsal; simple repetation in long term memor
    _Elaborative rehearsal: connect the things you are learning with things you know
    -Autobiographical memory: Memories connected to our Own lives is stronger that factual information

  • Amnesia; memory loss
    Retrograde amnesia: loss of past memory
    Anterograde amnesia: Cannot make new memmory
    Alzheimer's disease progressively brain disorder that leads to memory loss
    infantile Amnesia; being a child and lack the ability to make memmries

Retrieving Memories

  • _ recall/recognition
    recall - no cues
    recognition - select from cues
    context-dependent- easier to get where u learned
    mood congruent- your mood matches what u can easily remeber

  • State-dependent
    testing effect- memory stronger

  • Metacgnition- thinking about thinking( improves ablitiy to retrieve info)

Forgetting and Challenges

-Forgetting curve- memorie loss after learning but slows overtime

REtrieval failure
encoding failure-infp never fully entered memoru in the first place
intrference - memmries get mixed ul
inadequate retrieval -tip of tougune( not enough cues)
mworry repression

mem accuratey influenced by:
misinfo effect - mems become distorted with misleading info
source aanmesia-
gmem consolidation - altered
traustive me - imagine the event

Intelligence and Achievement Testing

• General Intelligence- Influences performance across different cognitive tasks
• Multiple intelligence
• Theory-logical,creative, and comon sense adapt.
iq- menatl age /Chor age* *100
Standization - testing similer every time
. Construct validy - messure intullgence
realiablity - if they take a test will
they remain similar and are results similare over time.
stereotype threat / left
EQ- the over the course of years EQ has gone up

Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology

*Themes:
Stability vs. Change:
Nature vs. Nurture
Continuous vs Discintinous Development
Research methods:
Cross sectional design -
longitudinal design - over time with the small group

Physical Development Across Lifespan

• prenatal (before birth) - genetic

  • teratogens -
    Maternal ill- affect baby
    evental. - stress etc.
    intant/child( infancy) - motor coordination
    fine smaller finger moves groos huge musels
    o Infant teflexxes - automate

  • depth - table with clear glass
    critical sensitive - visual must happen to develop
    imprinting-animals form a group with anything

  • Ad - puberty ( voices grow)sexuality. - weight/ heighr-primary (repro)secundary ( not linked with repor)-AD change moblity slow
    Vision hearing

Social Emotional System

  • biological differences

  • - shema ( children how they are)

  • socializing influences toys peers/media

Cognitive Development

*Assimilation - zebra example, fitting animal to an idea, accommodation- change what the child know to better understnad something new, a child makes a new category
*Sensorimotor- Sensoris and movement in the first years
*preoperational- symboles with language
*concrete operational- 7_11 logicial think / rules concerete objet
=reversibly - # the coginativly ability can return back
*Formal operational- 12 + abstaract theoritc thinking doesent happen for everyone.
scaffold - support to child when learning.
Proximat- what child can do on onw vs the helop from someone else
*crystallization- ablitlity to learn new things (voc) tends to inprove

  • fluid intulence- the ability to quickley solvs probs decline with age
    *Domentria - hard to focus. - hard to speak

Communication and Language Development

keywads

  • arbitrary-words not have any connection

  • phonology -
    Morphology - small part with meaning

  • Semantics - the meaning of words,

  • Rule G -order of the word, number, grammar, syntax.
    *Genative - Use Lang to create new sentances
    *How it it devolped
    Nonverbal, manual gestures, babies, coooing. Babbling. - 1 word phrase tele speech.
    *Errors they make,
    over - apply the rule

social emotional development.

*Bronfen - howchild influences.

Microsystem is closest to child-fam school

Meso -relationship between the kids family and the school
Meso - family and school relationsips
Extenis
macrosystw - laws believes the child lives in
chronosystem - element of time age/histotircl changes
parenrty -authortarian (no to child inputs ) permissive ( warm and excepting doesnt set many rules
uninvolved (low structure. and neglectful)
authory ( set clear expectiions)
Attatchment styles
are cure. forms can be with someone


  • Insecure attactchment develops when care giver is inconstait
    avioden -care giver igonre child needs,

  • Child learn to to heid fellings not going to want help.

  • Inconsistent that sometimes car giver care , then child become cling.

  • Disorganize, cear giver is source of comrot and fear .

timant- chld natiral stules if reacting. _
. SEPARTION anxirty- how child beocme upset - a person leaves
comgirt vs food. the monekys would go to the soft mother becusae i it feel comfirtale . peer relationships
peer child relationships children connection form plays
parrelle - palys next to each other , use their own
pretends- use own to story, . how to c, use to make their own imanginations.
Althoug
group of people/ peer/pressure . make them feel wrose about others
Imaginary -
Personable- no one has felt or what experience them.
• Emerg.Adult/soc clock - timing when events should happen
. Relations- supprt/car respect
Idenity- can change or be affected
ERiksons- stages of pshyco

  • trust vs midtrust-care over help then they learrn to trusrt

  • vs hsome and doubtn- learning feed and toilet

  • initiativesvs gt _question ask

  • indistry- praised feel they are confidences..

  • identity isrole confusion vs teens learning who they are .

  • intimac vs isolation seeking frinds make reaitipn

  • jenerativs vs stagnatiom mmaking sence help .

  • Ego is what is on the suface
    *Integrity vs depespr - fel pround
    • Early/later stress. Affect how relationships how later
    • I dentin - dont happen all at once. Take time.
    • .achive men t - explore diff options
    I duffions - - no strogn .

Classicle COnd

• what if somthon happens to a persno they learen some more info then they would have know before
• I maghine a student hear and get food . after at this then the bell will mean some with that .
unconmtiioned STum - someting causes auto reaction
unconditiioned respons - just happens atuomatci,
Condiionned - somthing statss off as neurtual but after time become something impartent.
Cindinond resp - the learn reaction. . so the bell makes the dog want food
,E XTINTNION . Whats goes with somthing
Spontasne recovery- that recovery returns.
stum discrimnition- -learn ti tell diff between simialr
. stum general. some simalarty they all mean food
• Coubter coubter = replace a bad reaction with good
tastaverson food makes you sick
. onetrallernibg very good at learned
biopgocall preparedness = easy to learn. Our braine body for it
habit. learn to . stp resiting harmeress

Operants Conditio
**• Law of af afect . = good things good

  • reigforcemnt to mak e behavior do mroe
    *Reiforcrnt - to do move of some thing.

  • punishemtn = for to leas somthing bad.

  • reifor - - cookie for cleaning
    making do it agin
    negative - Stop beca doing somthing. Like not beeping in caR

  • post - - chores ( get bad) making doo that agin
    negitiv =take like - take p
    rimary r - somting they donr have to want. They natutaly want
    egs- food water. Sectary r- learn and want
    like money., praise
    rein f d - a certin habivr only get
    rewarden a spot sit. generaliza - starts. Do better and start moving up
    Hap- teach be rewardding step by step. Sussess appro
    insnict - animal starts oit natrual behavu. It
    Superstitious- think action cased rest even when id didnt .
    learened helesness -give up
    r - way o rewarding
    contunes = every time

  • patiral a - part of time ( makes beghaver last
    variable = interval = rewards that they will be coming for
    ratioss = number of response (they have

• variable ratio : will keop playing every for a long time bec the surpitasess
• SOcial Learning *learn . from peopole .
• Observating/ intation .
• vicarious • Cond - learn and se what happen to oghw
r