Study Notes for Period 7 (1890-1945)

Period 7: (1890-1945)

Monroe Doctrine (1823)

• Announced as part of Monroe’s annual message to Congress.

• Declared that the Western Hemisphere was closed to future European colonization.

  • European interference in the Americas would be viewed as a threat to U.S. security.

  • Initially relied on British naval power for enforcement rather than U.S. military strength.

  • Promised that the United States would not interfere in existing European colonies or in internal European affairs.

• Reflected growing U.S. nationalism and confidence after the War of 1812.

  • Became a cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy and was repeatedly invoked in later decades.

  • Used to increase U.S. involvement in Latin America, especially in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Manifest Destiny

• Describes the belief that U.S. expansion westward across the continent was divinely ordained and inevitable.

  • Used as justification for continued territorial expansion, settlement, war, and the removal of Native Americans.

• Once westward expansion across the continental U.S. was complete, the same ideology was utilized to begin expanding outside of those existing borders as well.

Isolationism

• Ideology emphasizing avoidance of permanent alliances and foreign wars, without complete withdrawal from global trade.

  • Rooted in Washington’s Farewell Address (1796), which warned against "entangling alliances" and guided early U.S. foreign policy.

  • Allowed the U.S. to focus on national independence, domestic growth, industrialization, and westward expansion during the 19th century.

  • Reduced U.S. involvement in European power struggles but limited American influence abroad.

Internationalism

• As the U.S. began to grow economically and militarily by the late 1800s, it shifted from continental expansion to overseas expansion.

  • Emphasizes active U.S. engagement in global political, economic, and military affairs.

• Initially manifested through diplomatic negotiations, trade agreements, and land purchases, leading to the growth of U.S. imperialism.

Imperialism/Expansionism

• Refers to the extension of U.S. power beyond its borders through territorial acquisition or indirect economic and political control.

  • Became prominent in the 1890s, marking a shift from continental to overseas expansion and increasing U.S. involvement in international affairs.

• Justifications for expansion included:

  • Opening new trade markets.

  • Spreading American values and Christianity.

  • Strengthening national security.

  • Providing necessary resources.

Social Darwinism

• Applied the idea of "survival of the fittest" to economics, politics, and society.

  • Argued that wealth, power, and success reflected natural superiority, while poverty indicated weakness or failure.

• Eventually transitioned to the belief that nations, like species, compete for survival.

  • Stronger nations were seen as destined to dominate weaker ones, viewed as a natural outcome of global competition.

• Portrayed U.S. imperial expansion into the Pacific and Caribbean as the U.S. exercising its evolutionary "fitness."

  • Argued that White, Western ethnocentric societies were biologically and culturally superior.

  • Denied independence to colonized peoples, framing U.S. control as benevolent rather than exploitative.

The White Man's Burden (1899)

• Poem by British author Rudyard Kipling, influential during 19th-century imperialism.

  • Urged the United States to take control of the Philippines after the Spanish-American War.

• Became a moral justification for imperialism, reflecting beliefs rooted in Social Darwinism and racism.

  • Frame imperialism as a moral obligation instead of exploitation.

Commodore Perry’s Expedition to Japan (1853)

• The U.S. sought access to Asian markets by pressing for Japan to open its ports.

  • Influenced by prior successful diplomacy and the need for refueling ports.

• Resulted in the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854), opening two Japanese ports to U.S. ships and establishing a U.S. consulate in Japan.

  • Contributed to Japan's rapid industrialization and modernization by opening the nation to Western trade.

Seward’s Folly (1867)

• The U.S. sought territorial expansion to secure economic growth, strategic advantage, and national prestige.

• Secretary of State William Seward pushed for peaceful land acquisition.

• Purchased Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million in 1867, initially mocked but viewed as strategic by Seward.

  • Brought economic resources and provided a buffer against British Canada.

  • Set a precedent for non-violent imperial expansion.

Alfred T. Mahan & U.S. Naval Power (1890)

• Mahan argued that national greatness depended on sea power, requiring a strong navy and overseas bases.

  • Influenced U.S. leaders, leading to the expansion of the Navy and prioritization of naval power in foreign policy.

President William McKinley (1897-1901)

• President during the Spanish-American War, where the U.S. became an imperial power with overseas territories.

  • Approved the annexation of Hawaii in 1898 and oversaw the beginnings of the Philippine-American War.

  • Issued the Open Door Policy (1899).

Annexation of Hawaii

• U.S. Christian missionaries arrived in Hawaii, leading to dominance over land ownership and trade.

  • The Hawaiian League stripped power from the monarchy through the “Bayonet Constitution.”

  • Led to the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani after U.S. military intervention.

  • Annexation feared, as economically struggling plantation owners sought U.S. control.

The Spanish American War (1898)

• Cuba, a Spanish colony, fought for independence, leading to U.S. intervention under the guise of protecting American lives.

  • “Yellow Journalism” sensationalized Spanish atrocities.

  • Tensions escalated with the destruction of USS Maine, prompting the U.S. declaration of war.

• Resulted in victories in both the Caribbean and Pacific, marking U.S. emergence as an imperial power.

Casualties & Aftermath of the War

• U.S. Losses: Nearly 3,000 men; most due to diseases; Cuban Losses: Estimated 200,000.

  • Treaty of Paris (1898) ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the U.S. for $20 million.

• Laid the foundation for further expansion efforts in the Caribbean and Pacific.

Teller Amendment (1898)

• Declared the U.S. would not annex Cuba but led to the Platt Amendment (1901) imposing U.S. control.

The Philippine American War (1899-1902)

• Resulted from the U.S. decision to annex the Philippines following the Spanish-American War.

• Measures included guerrilla warfare by Filipinos facing brutal U.S. responses.

  • Estimated 200,000 Filipino civilians died from policies and conflict.

Insular Cases (1901-1904)

• Cases that addressed whether the U.S. Constitution applied to new territories.

  • Affirmed Congress’s authority to govern territories without applying full constitutional rights.

Open Door Policy (1899)

• Established equal trading rights for all nations in China and defined U.S. foreign policy interests.

Boxer Rebellion (1900)

• Chinese uprising against foreign influence, with international military intervention by the “Eight-Nation Alliance.”

President Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909)

• Shifted U.S. foreign policy to a proactive global leadership style, calling it “Big Stick Diplomacy.”

  • Justified intervention particularly in Latin America (Roosevelt Corollary).

President William Howard Taft (1909-1913)

• Shifted focus to economic leverage known as “Dollar Diplomacy.”

President Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921)

• Criticized predecessors; espoused “Moral Diplomacy” promoting democracy and self-determination worldwide.

World War I (1914-1918)

• Causes included militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism.

  • U.S. entry due to unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram.

Homefront during WWI

• Expanded federal power over industry, wages, and consumer practices.

Women and Labor during WWI

• Over 6 million women entered the workforce, challenging gender norms.

The Great Migration

• Movement of African Americans from the South seeking better opportunities in the North.

• The Double V Campaign linking democracy abroad with civil rights at home.

The Great Depression (1929-1939)

• Following the economic crash, widespread unemployment, social dislocation, and poverty ensued.

  • Government responses and New Deal initiatives redefined federal engagement in economic and social issues.

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945)

• Instrumental in implementing the New Deal and expanding social safety nets.

WWII and U.S. Mobilization

• Full national mobilization for military efforts, including diverse elements of society contributing to the war effort.

The Holocaust

• Systematic genocide against Jews, resulting in 6 million deaths.

Postwar Shifts

• Formation of new nations and the U.N. shaped international relations post-WWII.

Significance of WWII

• Established the U.S. as a global superpower, influencing international policies and power dynamics for decades.