Japanese Occupation in the Philippines

Most books would point to Germany’s invasion of Poland in September 1939 as the start of World War II. It was the start in Europe. But war in Asia started earlier than 1939. In 1931, an increasingly modern and militaristic Japan, burdened with growing population and limited resources, invaded Manchuria and set up a puppet government there. In 1937, it invaded Nanjing in China, committing atrocious acts of murder, rape, and destruction in the process. 

More than a thousand miles southwest of Japan, the Filipinos were living in peace time under their autonomous government, enjoying American protection while preparing for their eventual independence. They had knowledge about the war and conflicts both in Europe and China, but they felt secure under Uncle Sam’s mighty protection. The thought of Japan conquering the Philippines was probably a remote possibility in the minds of most Filipinos who thought, What can Japan do against America? Besides, Filipinos had grown accustomed to Japanese presence here and they were not really seen as a threat. At that time, Japanese population here had grown. Many of them owned businesses or worked as laborers. They had grown into a colony in Davao where they cultivated the hemp or abaca production, thereby contributing to the region's prosperity. 

But the Philippines was going to be dragged into a war that they did not want as US-Japan relations grew more and more tense. The US denounced Japan’s aggression in China. Unfazed, Japan  continued on, forging alliance with Italy and Germany, and occupying French Indo-China in 1941. This move to Southeast Asia prompted US president Franklin Delano Roosevelt to freeze Japanese assets in the US and impose trade embargo on oil and scrap iron. Cut off from vital materials, Japan eyed other Southeast Asian territories to gain access to resources. Negotiations between Japanese and Americans happened in Washington, but war was inevitable. 

It was an un-merry Christmas in December of 1941. Despite the Filipinos believing that it would be a short war, the reality of the situation became more evident. Since December 8, the  Japanese had made  landings in several places in the Philippines such as Aparri, Naga, and Davao. ON December 22, major Japanese landings happened in Lingayen, Pangasinan and Mauban and Atimonan in  Quezon. As the Japanese advanced through the archipelago, MacArthur decided to leave Manila for Corregidor and declare the former an open city (i.e. there are no longer military forces there, and therefore should not be bombed by the enemy). The enemy would still bomb it later, though. On December 24, Quezon, against his will, also transferred to Corregidor  since it had better defense. But the United States Armed Forces in the Far East (USAFFE)  Philippine defense was no match to the onslaught of Japanese offense and America had decided on its “Europe first” policy. In February of 1942, Quezon, his family, and other Commonwealth officials left Corregidor and travelled through the Visayas to Mindanao to be taken to Australia, then the US.  On March 10, 1942, it was MacArthur’s turn to leave for Australia in compliance with the orders of US president Roosevelt. After a month, Bataan would be surrendered, followed by Corregidor.

Before Quezon left Manila, he reorganized the government and assigned people who would stay in Manila and carry the heavy burden of facing the Japanese officials while protecting the Filipino people. This burden fell on the shoulders of  Jose P. Laurel, who was sworn in as Secretary of Justice, and Jorge Vargas, who was appointed as mayor of Greater Manila. Laurel was able to ask Quezon how far could they (Filipino officials to be left behind in Manila) go in cooperating with the Japanese? Quezon referred the question to MacArthur. The latter reportedly said that they could do anything except to take the oath of allegiance to the Japanese. Obviously, it was an impossibly difficult task. 

Jorge Vargas - appointed mayor of greater manila

Jose laurel - secretary of justice

On January 2, 1942, the Japanese occupied Manila. By January 21, they declared that they  were here to emancipate us from the US and vowed they would grant independence to the Philippines, if the Filipinos would cooperate with them in their Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Jorge Vargas  was made the head of the Executive Commission of the newly organized government. The departments of the government were headed by Filipinos, but each department had a Japanese adviser. On October 14, 1943, the Second Philippine Republic was inaugrated, with Jose Laurel as president. In history, this republic is often called “puppet republic” because it was, of course controlled by the Japanese. After the war, Laurel and other officials would be accused of collaborating with the Japanese. 

What would you do if you found yourself in a situation similar to Laurel's? 

Below is an excerpt from Laurel’s war memoirs. Read it to gain a deeper insight on the events and Laurel’s role during the Japanese occupation. 

After Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and other US territories in the US, the Americans decided to focus on the war in the west first. The Filipinos then spent three years under Japanese rule -- three years of terror, food shortage, and waiting for their redemption. But in those three years, they did not just wait for the return of their American saviors. There were Filipinos who became guerrillas and continued the resistance movement against the Japanese. These resistance fighters ambushed the enemies, and killed Filipino spies, and gathered information about the enemy. These information were sent to MacArthur and would be of help to the Americans in planning their next move against the Japanese. 

America and allies Australia and New Zealand were able to slowly fight their way back to the Pacific.They advanced toward Japan, attacking small islands in the pacific that were being held by Japan. The major turning point in the war in the pacific theater was the Battle of Midway, where the US carrier aircraft destroyed four aircraft carrier of the Japanese.  MacArthur intended to keep his promise. He would return. In August 1944, the Americans started bombing Japanese bases in Davao, then continued in the following months in the Visayas, advancing to Legaspi, Clark Field, then Manila. The Filipinos rejoiced at this signal of the return of the America. Perhaps they did not realize that this was just a prelude to what would be a brutal war for liberation.

 If in 1941, the Americans in the Philippines were not prepared for the onslaught of Japanese attack, this time, in 1944, their fortunes were reversed. But the Japanese were determined to keep the Philippines due to its strategic location. Tomoyuki Yamashita, famous for his successful invasion of Malaya and Singapore in 1942, was sent to the Philippines to lead its defense. Although the Japanese forces were not heavily depleted, they would not give up the Philippines. 

On October 20, 1944, Douglas MacArthur, and the new Commonwealth president, Sergio Osmena, landed in Leyte (Quezon had died in New York). The guerrillas’ actions contributed greatly to the success of this American landing. The following day, MacArthur gave this address to the Filipinos from Leyte:

People of the Philippines, I have returned.

By the grace of Almighty God our forces stand again on Philippine soil–soil consecrated in the blood of our two peoples. We have come, dedicated and committed, to the task of destroying every vestige of enemy control over your daily lives, and of restoring, upon a foundation of indestructible, strength, the liberties of your people.

At my side is your President, Sergio Osmeña, worthy successor of that great patriot, Manuel Quezon, with members of his cabinet. The seat of your government is now therefore firmly re- established on Philippine soil.

The hour of your redemption is here.

Your patriots have demonstrated an unswerving and resolute devotion to the principles of freedom that challenges the best that is written on the pages of human history. I now call upon your supreme effort that the enemy may know from the temper of an aroused and outraged people within that he has a force there to contend with no less violent than is the force committed from without.

Rally to me. Let the indomitable spirit of Bataan and Corregidor lead on. As the lines of battle roll forward to bring you within the zone of operations, rOctobeise and strike. Strike at every favorable opportunity. For your homes and hearts, strike! For future generations of your sons and daughters, strike! In the name of your sacred dead, strike! Let no heart be faint. Let every arm be steeled. The guidance of divine God points the way. Follow in His name to the Holy Grail of righteous victory!

On October 23, the Commonwealth government was formally re-established.

The Japanese had to stop the Americans in Leyte. What followed was the Battle of Leyte Gulf, considered as the greatest naval battle ever in history. In this battle, the Japanese sought to destroy the American fleet, but it was the Japanese fleet was got badly defeated. 

The Japanese lost trained pilots in the battle of Leyte, so in their desperation, they turned to kamikaze, where Japanese pilot to crash himself (and the plane) into the warships of the Americans to destroy them. As the Americans moved forward, landing in places like Mindoro and Lingayen, the Japanese moved to the mountains. Yamashita moved to Baguio with the officials of the Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic. The Americans were able to enter Manila in February 3, 1945. Here, they wiould meet a vigorous and determined resistance from the Japanese. The battle of Manila ended on March 3, 1945 with the Japanese were defeated, but more than 100, 000 civilians died and buildings in the city lay in ruins. By the end of the war, Manila was the second most devastated Allied city. 

The city’s freedom came at such a high price. 

How and where do you start rebuilding a country ravaged by war? 

The Philippines suffered much during World War II. Her capital city was in ruins. Fortunately or unfortunately for the Philippines, the US was there to give financial aid for rehabilitation. 

Senator Millard Tydings was sent to survey the damages in the PHilippines in March 1945. In April of the following year, the Tydings Rehabilitation Act, formally known as the Philippine Rehabilitaiton Act of 1946, was passed.  the creation of the Philippine War Damage Commission to process the war damage claims. $620 million was allotted for the rehabilitation of the Philippines: $120 million to repair roads and bridges, $400 million for individual claims, and $100 million came in the form of US war surplus goods.Individual claims were subject to conditions and evaluation. Claims could be made by Filipinos, as well as Americans and other foreigners whose countries were not enemies of the US. 

But there was a catch. The section of the general provisions of the Tydings Rehabilitation Act says that “No payment In excess of $500 shall be made until an executive agreement shall have been entered into between the President of the United States and the President of the PHilippines, and such agreement shall have become effective according to its terms, providing for trade relations between the United States and the Philippines…”

The Philippines would have to enter into an agreement with the US to get the large bulk of money allotted for rehabilitation. In exchange for the financial aid of the US, our country would have to face some consequences.

America fulfilled her promise. After ten years of Commonwealth government, the Philippines was given her independence on July 4, 1946. The Third Philippine Republic commenced under the leadership of president Manuel Roxas. But Did America really leave? 

The Bell Trade Act was given as a condition for the release of the rehabilitation financial aid. This act set forth the continuation of free trade between the Philippines and the US until 1954, after which goods of both countries would be imposed an increasing five percent tariff every year, until a full 100% tariff would be reached in 1974. However, absolute quotas would be imposed on chief exports of the Philippines such as sugar, hemp, and coconut oil . The US could also impose quotas on other Philippine products whenever the US President finds them as threat to American products. The Philippines was not given the same power to impose similar restrictions to American products.

But that was not the worst provision in the Bell Trade Act. The most controversial portion was the so-called “parity clause” which read,

“1. The disposition, exploitation, development, and utilization of all agricultural, timber, and mineral lands of the public domain, waters, minerals, coal, petroleum, and other mineral oils, all forces and sources of potential energy, and other natural resources of the Philippines, and the operation of public utilities, shall if open to any person, be open to citizens of the United States and to all forms of business enterprise owned or controlled, directly or indirectly, by United States citizens, except that (for the period prior to the amendment of the Constitution of the Philippines referred to in Paragraph 2 of this Article) the Philippines shall not be required to comply with such part of the foregoing provisions of this sentence as are in conflict with such Constitution.

“2. The Government of the Philippines will promptly take such steps as are necessary to secure the amendment of the Constitution of the Philippines so as to permit the taking effect as laws of the Philippines of such part of the provisions of Paragraph 1 of this Article as is in conflict with such Constitution before a such amendment.” (emphasis added)

The Bell Trade Act “parity rights” provision was against our constitution which required only corporations with sixty percent Filipino ownership could dispose, exploit, develop, and utilize public lands and mineral resources. 

This parity clause meant we were giving Americans the same equal rights over our resources. So we had to amend our constitution. The amendment moved swiftly in the Senate and House of Representatives, as those who opposed the amendment were suspended, under the pretext that they committed electoral fraud. The Roxas government did everything to campaign to the Filipinos to vote yes to the amendment in the plebiscite. And they voted yes. 

Collaboration Issue

After the war, America pressured Osmeña to prosecute those who collaborated with the Japanese. This was a delicate and difficult issue because many prominent Filipinos who remained in the country worked for the Japanese sponsored government. Many people were charged with collaboration but very few prominent personalities were punished. When Manuel Roxas (himself a “collaborator” but was MacArthur’s friend) became president, he granted amnesty to those who collaborated with the Japanese, except those who fought the Allies or voluntarily acted as spies for the Japanese. This was to speedily resolve the issue and restore national unity. However, as one historian noted, this was just a convenient and practical solution to move forward in the task of rebuilding and reconstruction of the country. But as the same historian notes, controversies are always left unresolved in the Philippines. 

From 1946-1954, the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (PKP) - led peasants staged a rebellion in Central Luzon against the government. The roots of the rebellion can be traced back to the abusive and oppressive land tenancy system that started during the Spanish period and worsened during the American regime. During the American period, the traditional landlord-tenant relationship, characterized by paternalism, deteriorated, resulting to growing discontentment among the peasants. It was also during the American period that communist and socialist leaders united and formed peasant groups. By the 1930’s there was already growing unrest  in the provinces, especially Central Luzon, as the peasants tried to ask for reforms but were met either with indifference or reprisal. When the Japanese came, the peasants formed an anti-Japanese guerilla group which they named Hukbong Magpapalaya sa Hapon or HUKBALAHAP and chose Luis Taruc as their leader. However, they had a tense relationship with the USAFFE. 

HUKBALAHAP Rebellion

After the return of the Americans, the landlords who fled from their places out of fear of the Japanese also returned. And with them, the oppressive tenancy system also returned. The Huks were branded as communists and anti-American and crackdown on the movement began.  They were asked to surrender their arms, their members and leaders were arrested, and in some incidents, even massacred. These repressions and persecutions drove peasants to fight back. Ramon Magsaysay’s appointment as Pres. Quirino’s Secretary of National Defense was instrumental to the weakening of the Huk rebellion. Magsaysay used all means — reform of the military, vigorous military campaign against the rebels, propaganda campaign, and offer of free legal assistance to peasants and resettlement in Mindanao. Soon, members of the communist politburo were arrested. When the charismatic Magsaysay was elected president in 1953, people believed that he was truly for the little people, thus the Huk’s prestige as champion of peasants was even weakened. Magsaysay sent a young Benigno Aquino, Jr. to negotiate with Luis Taruc in 1954. With Taruc’s surrender, the Huk menace faded. 

Watch this interview with former Hukbalahap leader Luis Taruc. Taruc came from a peasant family and was a product of American public education in the Philippines. The first video is about the political aims of his organization, the second part is about his decision to surrender. 

Economic and Corruption Issues

Vice President Elpidio Quirino unexpectedly became president when Manuel Roxas died of heart attack in 1948 and went on to win his term in the 1949 election. The task of continuing the rebuilding of the country fell on his shoulders. Quirino saw the need for a more controlled economy and protection from foreign competition. His most known economic policies were import control and import substitution. Under the import control law, goods classified as luxuries or non-essential were limited. Control on foreign exchange was also imposed. Succeeding presidents Magsaysay, and Garcia continued this policy of tight government control on the economy . Garcia is especially known for his “Filipino First policy” which promoted Filipino business interests over those of foreigners. These policies stimulated the manufacturing sector and industrial growth. The country also continued exporting raw agricultural products. Mahogany and other timber and wood products extracted from our forests became top exports until 1970s. However, these programs were also marred by corruption and nepotism. The steady degradation of our forests would also have negative impact later on. 

When Macapagal became president, he decided to implement the program of economic decontrol, or the removal of the restrictive government controls on business. 

The government was regularly rocked by scandals of corruption. Quirino was especially unfortunate to be remembered in history as a corrupt politician. He was rumored to have owned a golden orinola (bedpan) and other luxurious items. The Harry Stonehill scandal rocked the Macapagal administration. Stonehill was a discharged American soldier who incredibly made a big fortune in less than two decades through his businesses in the country. After a conflict with Stonehill, Menhart Spielman, a manager of one of his eighteen corporations, accused him of many charges including bribery and economic sabotage. Investigations and raid in Stonehill’s office yielded pieces of evidence of his illegal activities. A blue book was found containing names of government officials that allegedly received money from him. President Macapagal and former President Garcia were implicated in the issue of bribery.

World War II

Started in Asia in 1931

Japan invaded Manchuria and Nanjing, China due to limited resources and growing population

Tensions between Japan and US grew when US denounced Japan’s aggression in China. Japan started moving to more southeast asian countries and made alliances with Italy and Germany

Pres. Roosevelt decided to freeze Japanese assets and impose trade embargo on oil and scrap iron

Japan choose to look for these resources elsewhere

Pearl Harbor was bombed 

Japan started bombing Clark field and Nicolas field as well

Filipinos believed it would be a short war and were confident that the US was strong enough 

More Japanese landed 

McArthur left Manila to Corregidor and declared it an open city yet it was still bombed 

Corregidor had better defense but it was still no match for Japanese forces

American forces left for the Europe First policy 

Quezon and Commonwealth officials were taken to Australia 

Jose P. Laurel

• Secretary of Justice

Jorge Vargas

• Mayor of greater Manila 

They could do anything with the Japanese EXCEPT swear allegiance 

Japanese occupied Manila, declared they would emancipate US and vowed Independence if they join the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere 

Puppet Government

Departments were headed by Filipinos but had a japanese adviser
2nd Philippine Republic

Jose Laurel: President

Jorge Vargas: head of executive commission 

Gen. Masaharu Homa gave 50 days to complete the invasion but US and Philippine troops lasted longer, yet with no american troops and low supply Gen. Edward King surrendered 

With no trucks to transport them to prisoner camp they were forced to march from Bataan to San Fernando 

UST was turned into an interment camp 

Some would have free classes, give haircuts, tell fortunes 

Japanese Occupation of Manila (1942-1945)

Jan 3 Occupation of Manila 

• Curfew and Blackouts

• Martial Law 

• Any hostile Act against Japanese was punishable by death

• Use of PH flag, national anthem and singing of US songs was prohibited

3 objectives of Military Administration

• Restoring and maintaining peace and order

• Procurement of essential resources for carrying out war

• Ensuring self sufficiency of Japanese forces

Japanese first, Filipinos last

Japanese discipline 

Kempeitai - Japanese police 

Constabulary - asked to serve under Japanese 

Hukbalahap - guerilla group who fought against Japanese, had links to communists

Japanese established District and Neighborhood associations

• To keep order but to also spy on civilians

Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas (KaLiBaPi)

• Only philippine political party

• Japanese approved 

• Headed by Benigno Aquino Sr. 

Zoning or Zona 

• Townspeople are rounded up and made to walk in front of filipino spy whose head was covered by bayong

Philippine Executive Commision 

• National government of the philippines

• Contacted members of previous commonwealth and Japanese put them in charge

• Jorge Vargas, Benigno Aquino, Jose Laurel, Rafael Palma, Claro M. Recto

Japanese Propaganda

• Asians for Asians, Philippines for Filipinos

• Freedom of Speech and press were oppressed

• Japan promised independence

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

• New regional bloc of nations 

• Japan would unite the fellow asians to throw off yoke of Western Imperialism

Bansay = Bangkay

The New Republic

• Jose Laurel as President 

• Voted by the assembly 

• Did what he could to soften the impact of the Japanese 

• There were times where he stood his ground, didn’t declare war against US 

• When US came back he declared a state of war instead of declaration of war against US

• Removed japanese guards from malacañang

• Refused to have filipinos put in Japanese army

• Replaced NARIC by Biba

• Puppet Republic 

Economic goals

• Procure materials for war

• Self sufficiency

• Re-opening of some businesses 

Rationing of commodities

Food shortage

• Because of pre war conditions

• War devastated harvest

• Japanese first

Cotton instead of sugar 

Filipinos ways of coping

• Food substitution (alternatives to rice) 

• Stealing 

• Buy and sell 

• Barter trade

Golden Age of Theater Industry

• Only means of entertainment during Japanese occupation

Education

• Tagalog and Japanese as national languages 

• Emphasis on philippine culture

Principles: 

1. See Philippines’ place in the co-prosperity sphere

2. Cut dependence on western nations

3. Raise peoples morals

4. Spread english language

5. Give importance to basic education and and vocational education

6. Inspire people with love of labor

Radio Taiso

• Exercise everyday 

Why didn't filipinos like Japanese

Comfort Women

• Part of policy to have “comfort stations”

Guerilla Warfare

Luis Taruc - HUKBALAHAP

Guillermo Nakar - Northern Luzon

Bado Nangwa - Mountain Province 

Ali Dimaporo - Lanao

Ruperto Kangleon - Leyte

Salipada Pendatun - Mindanao

Wenceslao Vinzon - Bicol

Roque Ablan - Ilocos Norte

Types of Resistance Groups

• Unsurrendered Military Elements

• Peasants and Labor Groups

3 Important Functions of guerillas

• Ambush or kill enemy soldiers and civilians

• Relay info to mcarthur

• Liquidate  japanese spies

• Women also joined the Hukbalahap movement

• Messengers of guerillas and would hide messages in their underwear

Americans returned

• End of war is bombing of hiroshima and nagasaki 

• McArthur returned in Leyte with Sergio Osmena

Battle of Leyte Gulf 

• Greatest naval battle in history

• Yamashita was ordered to send reinforcements

• Total defeat of Japanese navy

• Japan spread itself too thin and underestimated US

• Japanese Army and Navy were rivals 

• Tomoyuki Yamashita

Liberation of Manila

• Liberation of allied troops at UST 

• Japanese blew up bridges so Americans couldnt reach them 

• Mass massacre, burning, and rapes  

Post War

Roxas vs Osmena 

Roxas

• younger and more dynamic

• Supported by MacArthur and the elites

• Made promises

Osmena

• older, disliked by MacArthur

• Did not campaign 

• Supported by the HUKs

Roxas founded a new political party

• partida liberal 

• Roxas became last president of commonwealth and first president of the third republic

Collaboration issue

• Ph officials who collaborated with Japanese

• Laurel, Vargas, Recto, Roxas

• MacArthur absolved Roxas of guilt 

• US pressured Osmena to do something abt collaboration

• MacArthur said Do anything but take oath of allegiance 

• Roxas proclamation of amnesty: unity