World History Semester 2 Comprehensive Lesson Outlines

The Renaissance in Europe

• Definition and Origins: Historians identify the age of cultural revival following the Middle Ages as the Renaissance, a term derived from the French word for ‘rebirth.’

• Italian Foundations: The movement originated in Italy around the year $1300$. At this time, Italy was divided into several wealthy city-states, including Rome, Venice, Florence, and Milan, which had accumulated immense wealth through commerce and trade.

• Philosophy of Humanism: Through the rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman thought, Renaissance artists and writers developed humanism. This philosophy emphasized that individuals could understand the world through their own efforts and reach their own conclusions, though most humanists remained religious.

• The Outpouring of Art: The Italian Renaissance is famous for a massive production of art. Three of the most significant artists of this period were Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael.

• Spreading the Movement: By the mid-$1400s$, Renaissance ideals began to spread from Italy to the rest of Europe.

• Northern Renaissance Literature: William Shakespeare is recognized as the most prominent writer of the Northern Renaissance. His plays frequently reflect themes of humanism and classical culture.

• Tension with the Catholic Church: The values of the Renaissance frequently clashed with the Catholic Church, which viewed itself as the sole legitimate guardian and interpreter of culture and knowledge.

The Reformation

• Religious Schism: A movement known as the Reformation occurred when protesters broke away from the Catholic Church to establish new Christian religious branches.

• Martin Luther’s Intentions: In Germany, Martin Luther intended to start an internal debate to restore purity to the Church. His primary initial grievance was the selling of indulgences.

• Lutheranism and Protestantism: Luther argued that salvation is achieved through faith alone and that the Bible is the only source of religious truth. This led to the formation of the Lutheran Church. Followers became known as ‘Protestants’ due to their protests against Church authority.

• The Thirty Years’ War: Lasting from $1618$ to $1648$, this conflict involved most of Europe and was fought for both political power and religious control. It ended the period of a continent united under a single Catholic religion.

The Scientific Revolution

• Introduction of Reasoning: Starting in the $1500s$, ‘natural philosophers’ (early scientists) began using observation and reasoning to discover the laws of nature.

• Astronomy Breakthroughs:

  • In $1543$, the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory, stating that the Earth and other planets revolve around the sun.

  • This challenged the geocentric (Earth-centric) theory and provided a more accurate description of the solar system.

• Isaac Newton and the Laws of Motion: In $1687$, Newton published Principia (Principles), which detailed the laws of motion and gravity. His work led to the view of the universe as a well-designed machine operating on mechanical principles.

• Key Outcomes: The Scientific Revolution introduced the scientific method and led to significant advances in chemistry, medicine, and biology. It also inspired thinkers to apply reason and the concept of progress to human society.

The Enlightenment

• Applying Science to Society: In the mid-$1600s$, thinkers began applying scientific principles to government and society, a movement that peaked in the $1700s$.

• Natural Law and Reason: Enlightenment thinkers believed human society operated under natural laws. They sought to use reason to improve social structures.

• Global Impact: This movement fostered secular attitudes, gave rise to ideals of liberty and natural rights, and promoted republican government across Europe and the Americas.

Political Philosophies of Revolution

• Theory of Natural Law: The belief that moral principles exist outside of human-made laws and can be applied to any system of justice regardless of culture.

• Social Contract Theories:

  • Thomas Hobbes: Argued that in a social contract, people surrender freedom to an absolute ruler in exchange for peace and social order.

  • John Locke: Argued the social contract was conditional. If a ruler failed to protect life, liberty, and property, the people had the right to overthrow them and form a new government.

The Glorious Revolution in England

• Birth of Constitutional Monarchy: Also known as the ‘Bloodless Revolution,’ this event established Europe’s first constitutional monarchy.

• The Bill of Rights: This document limited the monarch's power and established specific rights for Parliament. It made it illegal for a monarch to keep a standing army, levy taxes, or suspend laws without Parliamentary consent.

• Divine Right vs. Consent: The Bill of Rights ended the tradition of the ‘divine right of kings,’ making a monarch's authority dependent on the consent of the people.

The American Revolution

• Timeline and Propaganda: While the war began in April $1775$, the publication of the $50$-page pamphlet Common Sense in January $1776$ was crucial in making the case for independence.

• Colonial Action: Colonists used boycotts to refuse taxable goods. George Washington was appointed commander of the Continental Army.

• Independence: The Declaration of Independence was signed on $July 4, 1776$. The war officially concluded in $1783$ with the Treaty of Paris, in which Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States.

• Constitutional Compromises:

  • The Great Compromise: Established the House of Representatives (based on population) and the Senate (equal representatives per state).

  • The Three-Fifths Compromise: To reconcile Northern and Southern interests regarding slavery and representation, each slave was counted as three-fifths ($\frac{3}{5}$) of a person.

The French Revolution

• Causes: Driven by Enlightenment ideals, the revolution was sparked by national debt, high taxes, and an apathetic monarchy. The tax burden fell heavily on the poor peasantry.

• Demographics of the Estates: The Third Estate (commoners) constituted approximately $95$ percent of the total population.

• Legislative and Social Change: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen defined collective and individual rights as universal across all three estates.

• The Reign of Terror: After $1791$, the revolution became violent under extremist politicians who executed many, including the king, by guillotine.

• The Rise of Napoleon: In $1799$, Napoleon Bonaparte seized power in a coup d’tat. He established the Napoleonic Code to protect revolutionary ideals and eventually crowned himself Emperor.

Revolutions in Latin America

• Colonial Context: Spain and Portugal extracted wealth from Latin American colonies for three centuries.

• The Haitian Revolution: Toussaint L’Ouverture, a free black man, helped lead a revolution that resulted in the founding of Haiti, the first black republic in modern history.

Imperialism Throughout the World

• The New Imperialism: Starting around $1500$ with coastal outposts, imperialism shifted in the $1800s$. Colonies became sources of raw materials and food, as well as markets for machine-made products and weapons.

• Justifications: It was viewed as an economic investment for future labor and resources. Europeans also claimed a cultural duty to ‘civilize’ what they deemed ‘backward’ peoples.

• Imperialism in Asia:

  • India: The British East India Company ruled until $1858$. The Great Rebellion of 1857 resulted in India coming under direct parliamentary control, known as the British Raj.

  • China: Europe carved out ‘spheres of influence’ over ports. Though politically independent, China was part of Britain’s informal empire.

  • Japan: Defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of $1905$, the first modern instance of an Asian nation defeating a European power. This gave Japan control of Korea and hegemony over Manchuria.

  • Southeast Asia: Britain annexed Burma in $1886$ and controlled Singapore and parts of Malaya.

  • United States: Acquired the Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and Cuba following victory in the Spanish-American War ($1898$).

• The Partition of Africa: Europeans divided the continent into states with fixed borders. Notable events include the establishment of the Cape Colony by the Dutch in the $1650s$ (taken by Britain in $1814$) and the Boer Wars ($1881$ and $1899$). The discovery of diamonds and gold in the $1860s$ and $1886$ boosted the economy. Britain occupied Egypt in $1882$ to protect the Suez Canal.

• Western Influence in Latin America: Despite gaining independence by $1830$, most nations remained economically dependent on industrializing nations like Britain. The United States issued the Monroe Doctrine in $1823$ to prevent further European colonization in the Americas.

World War I

• The Path to Conflict: Tensions rose as Germany and Japan found fewer opportunities for colonies. Germany, unified in $1871$, lagged behind Britain and France.

• The Alliance System:

  • Triple Alliance (1882): Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary.

  • Triple Entente (1907): Britain, France, and Russia.

• Outbreak of War: In June $1914$, a Serbian nationalist killed the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Germany declared war on Russia on August $1$, and the alliance system dragged all of Europe into war within two weeks.

• Global Conflict and Total War: The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in November. Britain, France, and Russia were the Allied Powers. The war required the mobilization of all resources (Total War).

• The Armenian Genocide: Tensions resulted in a genocide that reduced the Armenian population in the Ottoman Empire from $2.13 million$ to $387,000$ by the year $1922$.

• The Turning Point: The U.S. remained neutral until outrage over submarine warfare (such as the sinking of the Lusitania in May $1915$, which killed $128$ Americans and carried $173$ tons of ammunition) pushed them toward the Allies. The U.S. entry in $1917$ was the war’s turning point.

• Conclusion of WWI: President Woodrow Wilson issued the Fourteen Points in January $1918$. An armistice was signed on November $11, 1918$. The Treaty of Versailles reduced Germany's population and size by $10$ percent and forced them to pay reparations.

Post-War Middle East and North Africa

• The Ottoman Empire’s Collapse: The Young Turks attempted to modernize but sided with the Central Powers. After the war, Mustafa Kemal led Turkey to independence.

• Iran (Persia): Reza Khan deposed the shah in $1925$, starting the Pahlavi dynasty. In $1941$, the Allies replaced him with his son, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi.

• The Mandate System: The Sykes-Picot Agreement of May $1916$ partitioned the region between Britain and France.

  • The Balfour Declaration ($1917$) supported a Jewish national home in Palestine.

  • Zionism grew in Europe due to anti-Semitism.

  • Increased Jewish immigration led to the Palestinian Revolt in $1936$.

  • On May 14, 1948, the State of Israel was proclaimed.

• Iraq: Britain installed Faisal ibn Hussein as king. Britain re-invaded in $1941$ to install a pro-British government after potential ties with Germany were explored by Iraqi leaders.

• Saudi Arabia: Ibn Saud united the kingdom in $1932$. In $1938$, American companies discovered the world’s largest petroleum deposit there.

The Rise of Fascism and Totalitarianism

• Economic Crisis: The Great Depression ($1929$) caused global questioning of capitalism and democracy.

• Italy and Mussolini: Benito Mussolini organized the Fascist party in $1921$. He turned Italy into a totalitarian state, removing individual rights and using secret police. He signed a treaty with the Pope in $1929$ and the Pact of Steel with Germany in $1939$.

• Germany and Hitler: Following the instability of the Weimar Republic, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor in January $1933$. He established a fascist state, passed the Nuremberg Laws in $1935$, and planned the extermination of the Jewish race.

• Spanish Civil War: Fought between Republicans and Nationalists (led by Francisco Franco) from $1936$ to $1939$. The Nationalists seized Madrid in March $1939$.

• Soviet Union: Joseph Stalin took control by $1929$. He implemented Five-Year Plans and the Great Purge to eliminate perceived ‘enemies of the people.’

World War II

• The Axis Powers: Formed by the Rome-Berlin Axis in October $1936$. The Tripartite Pact (September $1940$) added Japan.

• Immediate Causes: Hitler and Stalin signed a non-aggression pact, followed by the invasion of Poland on September $1, 1939$. Britain and France declared war two days later.

• Course of War:

  • Paris fell to Germany; Hitler then attacked the Soviet Union (breaking his pact with Stalin).

  • Pearl Harbor: Japan attacked the U.S. fleet on December 7, 1941.

  • The Holocaust: The SS and police murdered nearly $3 million$ Jews in death camps via gas chambers.

  • D-Day: The invasion of France began on June 6, 1944, with $150,000$ troops.

  • German Surrender: Hitler committed suicide on April 30, 1945. V-E Day occurred on May 8, 1945.

• The Atomic Bomb: Harry Truman ordered the use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August $6, 1945$) and Nagasaki (August $9, 1945$). Approximately $40,000$ died instantly in Nagasaki, with a total death count reaching as high as $250,000$. V-J Day was declared on August 14, 1945.

The Cold War

• Ideological Conflict: The U.S. (democracy/capitalism) clashed with the USSR (communism).

• Containment and NATO: The Truman Doctrine (March $1947$) sought to support people resisting subjugation. The NATO alliance formed in $1949$, followed by the Soviet Warsaw Pact in $1955$.

• Communist China: Mao Zedong founded the People’s Republic of China in $1949$. After Stalin’s death in $1953$, relations between China and the USSR grew strained. Mao launched the Cultural Revolution via student ‘Red Guards’ in $1966$. Mao died in $1976$.