Past paper questions

1898 - 1914: Wilhelm II established leadership in Germany after his ascension 1890, the two power standard abandoned in 1909, officially went to war with Germany in 1914 committing their imperial troops to fight the Germans

the period between 1898 and 1914 solidified the imperial tensions between Germany and Britain, with Germany actually becoming an imperial threat.

Second Boer War 1899-1902 - impact of empire on international rivalries, worsening tensions

BUT

1914 onwards: gained League of Nation Mandates such as Tanganyika, Namibia and Iraq from Germany, the German empire was dismembered

Colonial impact during both world wars — 1/3 soldiers on the Western Front were Indian in WWI, dominions and empire raised 4 million forces to fight in WWII

whilst the empire had significant effect on relations with Germany, the wars were ultimately caused by the tensions established between 1898 and 1914, making this period the most significant for Anglo-German relations

1898 - 1914: Fashoda crisis 1898, entente cordial 1904, triple entente formally established in 1907

in this period the imperial power balance between France and Britain was established in Britain’s favour, but also enabled the development of international alliances and cooperation between France and Britain. Britain’s eventual commitment to go to war signified them protecting their own and France’s imperial right to exist, and empire became a tool by which international relations were shaped

BUT

more significant moments in the later period

League of Nation treaty 1919, used veto power with Britain twice to stop the US investigating imperial matters, 1963 EEC rejection because they thought Britain would always prioritise empire → imperial impact on international relations more significant later on

also some impact earlier on e.g. Berlin conference in 1884 where international rivalries were played out in the scramble for Africa as a sort of proxy for European states

1898 - 1914: literally nothing, British trade deal with Mexico in 1902 ignoring the Monroe Doctrine - relationship with America was almost entirely non-existent

BUT

After 1914: rise of cold war power dynamics, intervened in Greece 1947, SEATO 1955 with Britain’s colonies, NATO 1949 where Britain became dependent on America for defence, Malayan emergency 1948-1960

Empire had a greater impact on Anglo-American relations because America was anti-imperial,

Consistently negative impact on relationship with Germany

Had competition through empire which worsened their relationship: naval race from 1898 and the construction of dreadnoughts, Moroccan crisis 1905, competition within Southern Africa and Boer states; all translated into competition between the two countries  → negative impact of Empire

Germany lost colonies to the British e.g. Tanganyika and Namibia after WW1, caused long-lasting tensions with Britain and Germany

Whilst there was less visible tension in the later period, as a result of Germany’s suppression post WWI, the imperial rivalries that emerged between the two countries throughout the period stressed tensions, negatively impacting their relationship and contributing to the causes of the two world wars

BUT

Imperial rivalries were dependent on the ambitions of their leaders:  

Under Bismark a system of effective occupation was organised in Africa, so empire didn’t directly threaten their relationship, Heligoland treaty  

It was the leadership of figures like Wilhelm II and Hitler that actually threatened their relationship 

Leo von Caprivi replaced Bismark, had aims of seeking new colonies in Africa and Asia

The naval race was started by Von Tiripitz

Empire only negatively affected the relationships between Germany and Britain when the aims of their leaders conflicted: it was ultimately dependent on their leaders not empire

initially empire caused little negative relations with US, since their independence, whereas after 1945 as the US pushed for colonial independence for other colonies, empire became an issue in the relationship of the US and Britain 

US had limited power before 1945; had been left out of the Versailles settlement, attempt to enforce Monroe doctrine but by 1895 Britain was investing 80 million in Latin America, limited power of US  

Post-1945: Suez Canal influence, Truman doctrine, pressure in Palestine and supporting Zionism → empire has a negative effect on their relationship

BUT

Even after 1945, the shared fear of communism that Britain and the US had meant that a degree of relationship with the US was pursued  

e.g. SEATO, British commonwealth forces in Korea, 100,000 troops (but this was compared to 1.7 mil by the US) 

their shared aims were achieved through the help of empire: actually had a positive effect on their relationship

BUT the extent of this relationship was limited and US were the dominant power (e.g. Korea); ultimately Britain’s pursuit of empire conflicted with US values and ultimately had a negative effect, international relations had shifted away from Britain

Fashoda incident 1898

Entente cordial 1904

Triple entente 1907

League of Nations treaty with France

Suez crisis 1956

EEC rejection - shows empire negatively affecting relationships

early on cooperative relationship with France, formed treaties together and they overcame/worked out imperial clashes (e.g. Fashoda)

However later on Britain’s empire became an issue in their relationship e.g. EEC rejection (France were worried Britian would prioritise their own imperial interests over European economies)

BUT

Maintained attempts at cooperation later on such as their involvement in the Suez crisis and LoN - some aims of cooperation

It was only when Britian’s empire appeared to threaten France’s interests directly that empire had a negative impact on their relationship - for most of the period imperial power actually supported a cooperative relationship between the two countries

Pre WWI: Mary Slessor ended twin infanticide in Nigeria from 1885, John Arthur and campaigns against FGM, education reform in India, Amy Carmicheal, banning hijras as part of the Indian penal code section 677 in 1863, expanded in Uganda to counter internal conflicts, Anglo-Ashanti wars to stop the slave trade 1830-1891

Layer period: moral stance had shifted and instead was focused on preparing colonies for independence e.g. colonial developments act 1929, investing in Africa, franchise expanding e.g. 35 million in India by 1935, Richard Cohen advocated for independence as colonies were developed morally enough, mandates

BUT

even early on moral was limited as a reason for expansion e.g. 1867 ignored King Tewodros II’s pleas to defeat Muslims because Abyssinia was not a strategically or economically beneficial area

Judgement:

Evidence for WWI: Versailles settlement 1919 transformed Germany from their main rival to a crippled empire - Britain take Germany’s colonies as mandates e.g. Tanganyika, Iraq, Namibia

BUT

1890 rise of Wilhelm II: went from relatively independent

Boer wars: 1899-1902:

Judgement:

Evidence for WWI: emerging US influence compared to prior limited effect, influencing policy in Palestine for example, also displaced Britain as the major exporter to South America

BUT

left out of Versailles settlement, not huge importance

WWII: far more significant turning point,

Judgement:

Evidence for WWI: affirmed alliance made in the entente cordial, league of nations establishment, support from colonial troops in Western Front, Sykes-Picot 1916,

BUT

Fashoda Incidence 1898: established UK dominance over France in colonies

EEC rejection: demonstrated rejection of Britain and their exclusion from Europe, significant downturn in their relationship

early period: more significant

Entente cordial 1904; treaty that solved disputes in areas like Morocco and Nigeria

Fashoda crisis 1898

initially, the empire had a significant impact on British-French relationships, shaping the power dynamic between the two countries and enabling Britian to exert political influence over France or work in conjunction with it. The relationship between the two countries was often geared towards improving mutual international and colonial interests, and the empire became a tool for britian to use in its relationship with France

League of Nations 1920

EEC rejection 1963

UN 1945, used to veto the US investigation of the Suez crisis

Contrastingly, in the later period empire was still significant in shaping international relations with France, although in a different way. Whilst in the early period, empire had been a tool to exert influence over France, later on the British Empire often interrupted relationships with France, such as motivating their rejection from the EEC.

BUT

even in the later period, the two countries were willing to form alliances that focused on the European political situation (such as the league of Nations and UN) despite the issues that empire was causing.

Empire was consistently important, and became increasingly negative, but there were points in their relationship where its impact was limited because of a more pressing European situarion.

early significant: empire is significant on relationship with Germany

Boer republic

Heligoland-Zanzibar treaty 1890

Rejected a formal alliance the same year

later period:

although there were significant developments in Britian and Germany’s relationship post-WWI, these impacts were primarily centred around the European political context rather than impacted by Empire

WWI - alliance with belgium in Treaty of London, caused by alliances with Austria-Hunagry and Serbia

WWII - alliance with Poland meant they had to go to war after Poland was invaded

international relations shaped by European politics rather than Empire

BUT

even later on Empire had some influence on relationship, especially during the war period

N. Africa was a key battleground such as the battle of El Alamein 1942, tried to remove British influence in Egypt

But this influence was mainly limited in that the British Empire acted as a proxy for European tensions (e.g. colonies fighting in Africa in WWII), rather than impacting the relationship with Germany directly

Early on, Empire had little significance on America’s relationship with Britian because there were few attempts at any formation of an international relationship. Since the independence of the US, and the breakdown of British-US trading during the American civil war (1861-1865), the US were diplomatically isolated and thus empire had little effect early on

later period: this significance increased hugely and empire became a fundamental tension in the relationship between the US and Britiain

Although they were willing to accept imperial help to limit the spread of communism e.g.

South Korea sent 100,000 troops in 1950

Generally, America opposed britian’s continued empire and empire impacted their relationship significantly

Greece 1947

SEATO and NATO eroding British dominance

Lend-Lease programme 1945

However, empire did have some (if limited

Munro Doctrine 1895 - Venezuela and British Guyana

counter to counter - investing £80 million in Latin America