liberalism: classical liberalism

egotistical individualism:​ the idea that individual freedom is associated with self-interest and self-reliance.​

developmental individualism​: the idea that individual freedom is linked to human flourishing.​

negative freedom​: the absence of external constraints in society as well as no interference in the private sphere​

laissez-faire capitalism​: an economic system, organised by the market, where goods are produced for exchange and profit, and wealth is privately owned.​

background:

  1. early liberal tradition emerged during feudalism to capitalism transition.

  2. peaked in 19th-century industrialisation.

  3. originated primarily in the UK.

  4. evolved as neoclassical liberalism or neoliberalism in 20th century.

  5. spread globally fuelled by globalisation

what do classical liberalists believe?

  • egoistical individualism: rational, self-reliant individuals.

  • society is atomistic, made of self-sufficient people.

  • negative freedom: freedom from interference or coercion.

  • absence of external constraints on the individual.

  • state as a 'necessary evil': sets conditions for order.

  • state limits individual freedom and responsibilities.

  • state as 'night watchman': maintains order, enforces contracts, protects.

  • positive view of civil society: realm of personal freedom and responsibility.

  • civil society often expressed in self-regulating market economy.

what theories underline classical liberalism?

  • Natural rights​

  • Utilitarianism​

  • Economic liberalism​

  • Social Darwinism

natural rights:

  • now commonly known as 'human rights'.

  • inalienable entitlement by virtue of being human.

  • conditions for leading a 'human existence'.

  • john locke: 'life, liberty, and property'.

  • thomas jefferson: 'life, liberty, pursuit of happiness'.

  • locke's government formed by 'social contract'.

  • argues against arbitrary or unlimited government.

  • government protects natural rights; citizens respect and obey.

  • right of rebellion if government fails, as seen in English Revolution & constitutional monarchy (1688).

  • locke's limited government roles:

    • maintain public order, protect property.

    • defence against external attacks.

    • enforce contracts.

  • private individuals handle everything else. Jefferson: 'That government is best which governs least'.

utilitarianism:

  • philosophers: Jeremy Bentham & James Mill.

  • Bentham called natural rights 'nonsense on stilts'.

  • individuals motivated by self-interest.

  • pursuit of pleasure, happiness, avoiding pain = 'utility'.

  • JS Mill's 'greatest happiness for greatest number' principle.

  • determines beneficial policies or institutions for society.

  • liberal thinkers adopted utilitarian view later.

  • individuals determine own best interests, not the state.

  • individuals choose morally right actions for pleasure or happiness.

  • 'greatest happiness' can prioritise majority, potentially overshadowing minority or individual rights

economic liberalism:

  • individuals self-interested; economy driven by 'market forces'.

  • prices set by supply and demand.

  • market self-regulating; no external guidance needed.

  • market harmonises conflicting interests in society.

  • laissez-faire: state has no economic role; free business action.

  • laissez-faire opposes factory laws, child labour restrictions, work hour limits, and working condition regulations.

  • profit pursuit benefits society overall.

  • ideas challenged in 1930s.

  • revived under Thatcherism; neoliberalism differs.

  • Adam Smith saw market limitations; didn't view human nature as solely utility-maximising.

social darwinism:

  • attitude to poverty: individualistic view.

  • social circumstances explained by individual talents and hard work.

  • individuals shape their own lives.

  • ability and willingness to work lead to prosperity; laziness does not.

  • "Heaven helps those who help themselves" - Samuel Smiles, 1859.

  • improvement should come from individual efforts, not law - Cobden, c. 1840.

  • reflects Darwinist theory: survival of the fittest.

  • "The drunkard in the gutter is where he ought to be" - Sumner, 1884.