Hundred Years' War: Key Points and Outcomes

Long struggle between England and France dating to the Norman Conquest 1066; by the 12^{th} century much of western France was held by English kings as vassals of the French king.
By the 12^{th} century, English rulers controlled territory in both England and France (e.g., Henry II’s reign).
Philip II (Philip Augustus) began reclaiming French territory from England; by the time of the Hundred Years’ War, England’s continental holdings were reduced to Guienne (around Bordeaux).
The Hundred Years’ War is a sustained clash for land and legitimacy dating back to the Norman Conquest, not a single continuous conflict.

Start of the war: 1337, when the French king asserted the fulth share of Edward III’s territories and Edward III claimed the French throne via his mother (Philip IV’s daughter).
Stage 1 (c. 1337–1360): English early successes; key battles include Crécy (1346) and Poitiers (1356); peace settlement in 1360; English controlled much territory in the left-hand map (light green).
Stage 2 (c. 1369–1380): French king Charles V reconquers most English gains; by 1380 the English hold is narrowed to a coastal strip along western France near Bordeaux; Burgundy aligns with England, giving strategic advantage.
Stage 3 (Henry V era, 1413–1422): English renew offensive; Agincourt (1415) leads to northern domination; after the 1420 Treaty of Troyes, Henry V is recognized as heir to the French throne; Charles VI’s son, later Charles VII, is exiled to Chinon near Orléans.
1428–1429: Siege of Orléans lifted by Joan of Arc; Reims crowned Charles VII in 1429, signaling a turning point.
1435: Peace of Arras; Burgundy withdraws support for England, shifting momentum to France.
1453: End of the war; England loses almost all continental possessions except Calais; Calais remains across the channel.
Joan of Arc: Her leadership at Orléans and Reims helps turn the tide; later captured and executed in 1431; not rescued by Charles VII.

Early phase: English territorial gains reverse over time; by late stage, English dominance collapses on continental France.
Burgundy: Alliance with England provides strategic edge during several phases; later Burgundy aligns with France, aiding French victory.
Final outcome: France emerges as the continent’s strongest power; England retains only Calais; substantial reshaping of power in western Europe.

Longbow vs crossbow: longbow enables faster, more sustained fire; crossbow accurate at short range but slower to reload.
Gunpowder and cannons: introduce new siege capabilities; shift from knightly mounted warfare to infantry and artillery-dominated warfare.
Transition point: war marks the move from medieval chivalry and feudal levies to modern warfare, emphasizing organization, firearms, and formal state armies.

England: withdraws from continental affairs for roughly a century; later internal dynastic struggles and domestic reform (pre-Reformation era).
France: centralized monarchy grows stronger; permanent standing army established by the mid- to late-15th century; taxation mechanisms expand (e.g., gabelle salt tax) and Estates General’s influence remains limited.
Territorial and state-building outcomes: France absorbs much of Burgundy’s influence and becomes a dominant continental power; England’s focus shifts inward for generations.
The war helps spur the development of absolutism in France and foreshadows modern state-building across Europe.

Guienne (G-u-i-e-n-n-e): English-held region in SW France.
Calais: England’s last major continental holding by 1453.
Orleans and Chinon: key locations related to the turning points and Joan of Arc’s rise.
Reims: site of the French coronation of Charles VII (1429).
Gabelle: salt tax; example of monarchic taxation without Estates General approval in France.
Estates General: French representative assembly with limited influence by this period.
Chivalry and feudalism: the old basis of warfare giving way to modern organizational warfare.