GCSE Psychology: Development – How did you develop?

Development – How did you develop?

Specification Requirements

This topic is compulsory and examined in Paper 1.
Candidates should demonstrate knowledge, understanding, and skills.
Activities include recall, description, and definition.
Understanding involves explaining, applying, analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating.
Candidates should show an understanding of the interrelationships between core areas of psychology and issues and debates.
Issues to consider when evaluating studies:
- Validity
- Reliability
- Generalisability
- Ethics
- Objectivity
- Subjectivity
Candidates should apply their understanding to scenarios using psychological concepts, theories, and research.
Hands-on experience through ethical, investigative activities is encouraged.
Studies that can be replicated are marked with an asterisk.
Research methods are in Topic 11, but methodology can be considered with each study.
For example, consider the reliability of questionnaires in Gunderson et al. (2013).
Activities are not directly assessed but enhance understanding and examination performance.

Content

Early Brain Development

Understand the development of:
- Forebrain
- Midbrain
- Hindbrain
- Cerebellum
- Medulla
Early brain development is a core area of the development topic.
Start with a basic diagram to locate and label brain regions.
Define the functions of these areas to understand links to developmental skills and learning.
Understanding brain region development aids in connecting neuropsychological aspects of early development.
Forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain develop pre-natally, starting with the neural tube.
The forebrain is at the front and handles higher-order functions.
The midbrain is linked to sensory information, sleep, and simple movement; functionality overlaps with the forebrain.
The hindbrain is at the back, connected to the spinal cord.
The hindbrain, or ‘reptilian brain’, controls basic functions like heart rate, coordination, and facial expressions.
Identify the location and explain the functions of the cerebellum, which manages motor commands (e.g., balance, motor skills).
Identify the location and functions of the medulla, such as autonomic control of bodily functions.
Apply brain regions to the development of skills like walking, thinking, or communication.
Determine which brain region is responsible for specific developmental skills.
Apply these concepts to stimulus materials, identifying key features of early brain development.
Explanations of brain development can be evaluated with supporting evidence like brain scan images.
Judge the usefulness of explanations based on application to society.
Extended candidates can draw on ‘issues and debates’ content, such as reductionism or nature versus nurture.
Example Scenario: Bethany is in the first month of pregnancy. Katherine reads that a human brain will have already started to develop in this early stage of pregnancy. What early brain development would be expected in the first month of pregnancy?

Role of Education and Intelligence

Understand Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development and its four stages:
- Sensorimotor
- Pre-operational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
- Schemata/schemas
- Assimilation
- Accommodation
- Equilibrium
The role of education and intelligence provides a concept to link Piaget’s theory to applications such as classroom learning or the education system.
Each stage is a step in the development of intelligence.
Discuss and define ‘education’ and ‘intelligence’ before engaging with the content.
Understand each stage and the developmental skills shown by children in each stage.
Reinforce the connection to education and intelligence, showing that a child needs to reach a specific stage to learn a specific skill.
Abstract thinking cannot occur in the pre-operational stage, so education at this stage should not involve abstract concepts.
Consider the issues and debates section and the development of morality, connecting cognitive development with pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional stages of morality.
Construct a table to show the developmental processes and skills associated with each stage.
The stages are universal and hierarchical; children need interactions with the environment to progress in sequence.
Embed the concept of schema in the delivery of the stages.
The sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years) is based on senses and motor skills; know core features such as object permanence.
The pre-operational stage (2 to 7 years) includes concepts such as centration, egocentrism, transductive reasoning, animism, and conservation; Piaget and Inhelder (1956) Three mountains task highlights egocentrism at this stage.
The concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years) includes the child’s ability to decentre and think logically about physical objects.
From 11 years onwards, children reach the formal operational stage, where they can manipulate hypothetical ideas and consider possibilities (hypothetico-deductive reasoning).
Apply these concepts to stimulus materials, identifying key features from the theory of cognitive development.
Example Scenario: Nicole’s family have two pet cats. One day, when Nicole is in the park with her mum, she points to a dog and says ‘cat’. Why might Nicole think that the dog is a cat?
Understand the concept of schema and define, describe, and explain this concept in relation to development, assimilation, accomodation and equilibrium.
These processes are the foundations of intelligence; Piaget considered schema to be the mental structures around which children build knowledge.
Assimilation is where a child fits their understanding into an existing schema, creating equilibrium.
Accommodation is when an existing schema requires adaptation, resulting in disequilibrium until the schema is developed.
Link these concepts to education, providing activities and knowledge that can be assimilated or accommodated.
Learning to read using phonics to read new words is an example of assimilation.
Apply these concepts to stimulus materials, identifying key features from schema.
Example Scenarios: Nicole recognises her mother’s blue car and father’s green car as ‘cars’. Her grandmother had a red car but buys a white car. Which process will Nicole use to understand the change? Nicole’s grandfather sells his car and buys a motorbike. Which process will Nicole use to understand the change?
Theories can be evaluated through comparisons to other models, considering whether one explanation is more realistic or comprehensive.
Use supporting evidence, such as Piaget and Inhelder (1956), to provide evidence of egocentrism.
Use evidence that shows the theory may be inaccurate, such as Samuel and Bryant (1984), who found that conservation occurs earlier than Piaget suggested.
Judge the usefulness of the theory based on application to society.
Extended candidates can draw on ‘issues and debates’ content, such as nature versus nurture.

Effects of Learning on Development: Carol Dweck’s Mindset Theory

Understand the strengths and weaknesses of the Mindset Theory.
- Fixed mindset
- Growth mindset
- Ability and effort
Define and explain the key terms: fixed mindset, growth mindset, ability, and effort.
A fixed mindset is the belief that ability is a fixed trait; a growth mindset is the belief that abilities can be developed through effort.
Complete a mindset test to understand the concepts.
Include the study by Gunderson et al. (2013) when discussing Dweck’s Mindset Theory and the role of praise for effort.
Link back to brain development, discussing how learning creates neural pathways, thus learning and development is interconnected.
Apply these concepts to stimulus materials, identifying key features of mindset.
Example Scenario: Claire did not do well on her biology test, but her teacher praises her for working hard. Claire feels more confident and works harder for her next test. Why did the teacher praise Claire’s effort?
Theories can be evaluated through comparisons to other models, considering whether one explanation is more realistic or comprehensive.
Use supporting evidence, such as Gunderson et al. (2013), to show the impact of praising effort on mindset.
Use evidence that shows the theory may be inaccurate, such as Bouchard & McGue (1981), who found correlations between genetic relatedness and IQ.
Judge the usefulness of the theory based on application to society.
For example, teaching strategies can be developed to focus on praise for effort.
Extended candidates can draw on ‘issues and debates’ content, such as nature versus nurture.

Effects of Learning on Development: Daniel Willingham’s Learning Theory

Understand the strengths and weaknesses of Willingham’s Learning Theory.
- Factual knowledge precedes skill
- The importance of practice and effort
- Strategies to support cognitive development
- Strategies to support physical development
- Strategies to support social development
Understanding that factual knowledge precedes skill will help candidates underpin their learning about this theory.
Students need facts to think well, and these facts inform their thinking; past knowledge increases the speed of acquiring more knowledge.
Similar to the growth mindset, Willingham argues that intelligence is malleable and stresses the importance of practice and effort.
Willingham’s Learning Theory provides practical ideas for teaching and education.
Discusses strategies to support cognitive, physical, and social development.
The role of education is entwined with theories of learning and cognition.
Strategies are broken down by educational stages.
Candidates should know examples of suggested strategies appropriate to each stage of development.
Apply these concepts to stimulus materials, identifying key features from Willingham’s Learning Theory.
Example Scenario: Sarah teaches children aged 8 years old and is planning an activity to help her students learn the importance of healthy eating. How can two strategies suggested by Willingham help Sarah plan an appropriate activity?
Theories can be evaluated through comparisons to other models.
Willingham’s Learning Theory suggests children think differently at different ages, which can be supported by Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
Consider whether one explanation is more realistic or comprehensive.
Use supporting evidence or evidence that shows the theory may be inaccurate.
Judge the usefulness of the theory based on application to society.
Extended candidates can draw on ‘issues and debates’ content, such as how psychology has changed over time.

Studies

Piaget and Inhelder (1956) Three Mountains Task

Aim: To study children's perspectives and investigate the relationships between a child’s viewpoint and their perception of others’ viewpoints.
Procedure:
- Sample: 100 children (21 aged 4-6, 30 aged 6-8, 33 aged 8-9, 16 aged 9-12).
- A metre square model represented three mountains with four viewpoints (A, B, C, D).
- Children were given 10 pictures of the mountains from various positions and three boards to match the mountains.
- Trial 1: The child was seated at position A and asked to arrange the boards to represent what they saw. The doll was placed at position C, and the child was asked to arrange the boards to represent what the doll saw. This was repeated for positions B and D. The procedure was repeated with the child at position B and the doll at A, C, and D. This continued until the child viewed the model from all four positions.
- Children were also asked to reconstruct their boards from previous viewpoints.
- Trial 2: The child and doll were moved around as before, but the child selected the doll’s viewpoint from ten photographs.
- Trial 3: The child selected a picture and placed the doll on the model to match the view.
Results:
- 4 to 6 year olds:
  - Trial 1: Children rearranged the boards to reflect their own viewpoint. Older children attempted to represent the doll's view but reverted to their own perspective. They could recall their previous viewpoints.
  - Trial 2: Children selected pictures representing their own viewpoint or randomly selected an image.
  - Trial 3: The doll was placed randomly or not moved.
- 7 to 12 year olds:
  - 7 to 9 year olds: Attempted to reflect the doll’s viewpoint but inconsistently.
  - 9 to 12 year olds: Demonstrated mastery in viewing the model from the doll’s perspective.
Conclusions:
- Children in stage 2 (pre-operational) failed to see the doll’s viewpoint, regarding their own as the only possible one due to egocentrism.
- Children could replicate previous viewpoints from memory but could not predict other viewpoints due to reasoning skills in stage 2.
- Children in stage 3 (concrete operational) began to show understanding of others’ viewpoints. Younger children selected pictures from their own perspective but turned them toward the doll. By the end of this stage, children could alter boards and select pictures representing the doll, demonstrating a decrease in egocentrism.

Gunderson et al. (2013) Parent Praise to 1- to 3-Year-Olds Predicts Children's Motivational Frameworks 5 Years Later

Aim: To investigate parental praise in children aged 14-48 months, determining the type of praise used and whether person or process praise predicts motivational frameworks five years later.
Procedure:
- Sample: 53 children from Chicago (29 boys, 24 girls) from a larger language development study, representing Chicago demographics.
- Participants (children and parents) were visited at home every four months from when the child was 14 months old as part of the original study. Data was double-blind.
- Video recordings from the language study lasted 90 minutes; interactions at 14, 26, and 38 months were used.
- Parent praise was measured by coding transcripts, distinguishing between explicit and implicit praise, and categorizing into process praise, person praise, and other praise.
- Coding reliability was tested on 20% of transcripts with a kappa value of .81, indicating high inter-coder reliability.
- When the children reached 7-8 years old, they completed two verbal questionnaires about their motivational framework, three months apart, as part of a 2-hour cognitive assessment.
- Questionnaires included 11 and 13 items respectively, testing intelligence (18 items) and sociomoral attributes (6 items), adapted from Heyman and Dweck (1998).
- Intelligence domain items used 5-point Likert scales.
- Sociomoral domain items used yes/no questions.
- Parents completed an 8-item questionnaire assessing their beliefs about academic development.
Results:
- Use of praise: Praise was measured cumulatively across three visits.
- Process praise: Mean of 0.59% of all utterances (18.0% of praise utterances).
- Person praise: Mean of 0.45% of all utterances (16.0% of praise utterances).
- Other praise: Mean of 1.97% of all utterances (66.0% of praise utterances).
- Overall, praise was 3% of all parental utterances.
- Person praise decreased significantly at 38 months compared to 14 months; process praise showed no significant change; other praise increased significantly.
- Boys received more process praise than girls; girls received more person and other praise than boys.
- Average sociomoral scores correlated with average intelligence scores.
- Boys reported marginally more incremental motivational frameworks than girls, significantly higher in the intelligence domain but not the sociomoral domain.
- A higher score for malleable cognitive development correlated with higher use of person praise.
- A significant correlation was found between process praise (as a % of total praise) from 14-38 months and children’s incremental motivational framework scores at 7-8 years old.
- No significant correlation was found between person praise and children’s entity motivational framework scores at 7-8 years old.
Conclusions:
- The amount of process praise parents gave between 14 and 38 months predicted children’s incremental motivational frameworks at 7-8 years old.
- Children whose parents used more process praise were more likely to have beliefs and behaviors associated with an incremental motivational framework.
- Boys received more process praise than girls, which could explain why girls tend to attribute failures to a lack of ability and show decreased persistence and motivation after failure.
- Parents with stronger incremental theories were more likely to give person praise, possibly to increase the child’s self-esteem.

Issues and Debates

Morality Issues in Psychology and the Individual

Morality is an aspect of human development connected to cognitive developmental stages and influenced by social factors like norms, values, and beliefs.
Explore the key terms, including the meanings of morality and morals.
Understand Kohlberg’s development of Piaget’s morality, highlighting how psychology develops and changes over time.
Focus on pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional stages of morality and the two stages within each, connecting cognitive development with moral reasoning.
Use this debate to address content in topic 1:
- Stage one in pre-conventional morality can be considered egocentric.
- There is a requirement for abstract thinking in post-conventional stages of moral development.
- Factual knowledge precedes skill (1.1.4a) could link to the need for understanding moral and ethical principles before post-conventional morality can be achieved, whereas basic facts may be more akin to conventional morality.