Comprehensive Guide to the History of Russian Literature and Folklore

Introduction to Literature as the Art of the Word

• Literature as Art: Literature is defined as the "art of the word."
• Artistic vs. Scientific Literature:     * Scientific Literature: Its goal is to communicate facts, knowledge, and hypotheses. It is based on logic, precision, and reliability ($7777, 10, 11, 12$ specifics mentioned).     * Artistic Literature: Its goal is to influence feelings, imagination, and emotions. It is based on fiction and imagery.

Folklore and Oral Folk Art

• Definition of Folklore: Folklore is a product of oral folk art. The term is broken down as follows:     * Oral (Ustno): Derived from "usta" (lips, mouth), referring to the storyteller, narrator, or singer.     * Folk (Narodnoye): Created by the people; the author is anonymous.     * Creativity (Tvorchestvo): To create, invent, or compose.
• Origins and Transmission:     * Folklore consists of the verbal creativity of the people.     * It arose with the appearance of speech.     * It is created orally and spread orally.
• Folklore vs. Literature:     * Folklore: Oral transmission, anonymous author (collective).     * Literature: Written transmission, specific author.
• Functions of Folklore: It serves to pass down experience and originates from mythology.
• Key Features of Folklore:     1. Syncretism: The inseparable merging of various types of art within a single work, including Music, Dance, Word, and Ritual.     2. Traditionality: Following established formulas, plots, and patterns; actualizing the experience of past generations.     3. Repetitiveness and Systematics: Includes common images (symbols of animals and plants), standard plots, constant epithets, and repetitions.     4. Traditional Artistic Vision: Use of stereotypes and formulas to describe relationships and behavior.     5. Collectivity and Anonymity.     6. Oral Nature.
• System of Folklore Genres:     * Epic: Narrative about events.     * Lyric: Expresses feelings, experiences, moods, and the inner world.     * Drama: Re-creation of action.     * Small Genres: Short and concise forms (e.g., "A kind word is pleasant even to a cat").
• Specific Folklore Genres Defined:     * Bylina: A folk song about bogatyrs and national heroes.     * Fairy Tale (Skazka): A story of an adventurous or everyday nature about fictional events.     * Legend: An oral story based on a miracle or fantastic image perceived as authentic.     * Songs: Lullabies, lyrical, or ritual songs.     * Chastushka: Short, rhythmic folk songs expressing feelings (e.g., regarding the end of winter and eating pancakes).     * Poteshka: Nursery rhymes (e.g., "The Crow-Magpie cooked porridge…").     * Proverb (Poslovitsa): A brief wise saying containing a complete meaning and moral (e.g., "Without labor, you can't even pull a fish out of a pond").     * Saying (Pogovorka): A pithy expression characterizing a phenomenon (e.g., "Like two peas in a pod," "First pancake is a flop").     * Riddle (Zagadka): A short poetic description of an object or phenomenon with a hidden task for decryption (e.g., "The colored yoke hung over the river" — a rainbow).     * Omen (Primeta): A sign used to guess upcoming events or provide advice (e.g., spilling salt, whistling in the house).

Russian Folk Tales (Narodnye Skazki)

• Purpose of Tales: They help understand good vs. evil, teach bravery, develop fantasy, and connect families across generations.
• Characteristics: Tales are told aloud, passed from mouth to mouth, change slightly with each telling, and have anonymous authors.
• Folklore Glossary:     * Skazka: Fairy tale / magic story.     * Narodnaya: Folk / created by people.     * Avtorskaya: Authorial / written by a writer (e.g., Pushkin's "Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish").     * Vymysel: Fiction / something that doesn't exist in reality.     * Nravoucheniye: Moral lesson.     * Zhanr: Genre.
• Elements of Tales:     * Triple Repetitions: Three sons, three tasks, three attempts.     * Fixed Epithets: "Good youth" (dobry molodets), "fair maiden" (krasna devitsa), "grey wolf."     * Traditional Openings: "Once upon a time…" (Zhili-byli), "In a certain kingdom…"     * Magic Endings: "And they lived happily ever after…"     * Artistic Fiction Examples: Talking animals (Kolobok), magic items (self-spreading tablecloth), transformations (Frog Princess to Vasilisa the Wise).
• Three Main Genres of Tales:     1. About Animals: Heroes are animals with human traits (e.g., "The Fox and the Crane").     2. Magic (Volshebnye): Magic, hero testing, struggle of good vs. evil, triple repetitions (e.g., "Geese-Swans").     3. Everyday (Bytovye): Realistic situations, mocking vices, focus on wit and cunning (e.g., "Porridge from an Axe").

Russian Bylinas: Heroes and History

• Definition: Derived from "byl" (that which was). It is a folk epic song about heroic events and bogatyrs (warrior heroes).
• Performance: Sung by a "skazitel" (storyteller) accompanied by the "gusli" (musical instrument).
• Historical Basis: They relate to Ancient Rus ($X$–$XII$ centuries), specific cities like Kiev and Chernigov, and real rulers like Prince Vladimir or Yaroslav. However, events are exaggerated (Artistic Truth).
• Bylina Cycles:     * Kievan Cycle: Heroes protecting Kiev and Prince Vladimir.     * Novgorod Cycle: Heroes are merchants and visitors; focus on travel/dispute (e.g., Sadko).     * Mythological Cycle: Ancient stories about magic and gods.
• Poetics of Bylinas:     * Hyperbole: Exaggeration of power (e.g., "A club weighing $90$ poods").     * Repetitions: For rhythm and memory (e.g., "Rode and rode").     * Fixed Epithets: "White hands," "good youths."
• Composition: Follows a plan: Opening (Zachin) → Plot (Zavyazka) → Climax (Kulminatsiya) → Resolution (Razvyazka) → Ending (Kontsovka).

Literature of Ancient Rus ($IX$–$XVII$ Centuries)

• Connection to History: Books recorded historical events like the Baptism of Rus ($988$) or the founding of Kiev. Examples include "The Sermon on Law and Grace" and "The Tale of Igor's Campaign."
• Artistic Features:     * Goal: To teach goodness ("Do not kill," "Do not steal").     * Religiosity: Faith was part of life; constant appeals to God.     * Solemnity: High-style language to show importance.     * Repetition: Used to aid memorization.     * Hero Profile: Usually a Prince or a Saint serving as an example.
• Book Creation (Manuscripts):     * Material: Parchment (calf skin) or later paper.     * Writing Tools: Bird wing feathers and ink made from berries/bark.     * Creators: Monks in monasteries. A single book took $1$–$2$ years to make.     * Decoration: Large first letters (Initials) and small pictures (Miniatures).
• Genres of Ancient Literature:     * Chronicle (Letopis): Records of events by year (e.g., "The Tale of Bygone Years").     * Life (Zhitiye): Stories about saints (e.g., "The Life of Alexander Nevsky").     * Sermon/Word (Slovo): Solemn speeches (e.g., "The Sermon on Law and Grace").     * Journey (Khozhdeniye): Travel accounts (e.g., "Journey Beyond Three Seas").     * Instruction (Poucheniye): Advice on how to live (e.g., "Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh").

"The Tale of Bygone Years" (Povest Vremennykh Let - PVL)

• Description: The main book of Ancient Rus, reflecting history from the creation of the world to the $XII$ century.
• Authorship: Monk Nestor and others; created around $1113$.
• Significance: It is a monument of History, Literature, and Language.     * Historical: Records real dates (e.g., Baptism of Rus in $988$) and names.     * Literary: Contains legends and imagery (e.g., The Death of Oleg).     * Linguistic: Shows evolution of Russian (Old Church Slavonic roots).
• Key Figures in PVL:     * Oleg the Prophet: Wise prince; legend of his death from his horse.     * Princess Olga: The wife of Igor; known for her revenge on the Drevlians and wise rule.     * Vladimir the Great: Chose Christianity for Rus in $988$ after comparing various faiths (Islam, Catholicism, Orthodoxy).     * Yaroslav the Wise: Son of Vladimir; focused on laws, culture, and peace.
• Historical Symbolism: Events are often recorded with hidden meanings (e.g., Oleg's death symbolizes that one cannot escape fate).

Literature of the Period of Feudal Fragmentation ($XII$–$XV$ Centuries)

• Historical Context: Rus was divided into small principalities. Literature served to unify people through patriotism and morality.
• Key Centers: Kiev (old center), Vladimir-Suzdal (new power center), Novgorod (trade republic).
• "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" (Slovo o Polku Igoreve - $1187$):     * Plot: Prince Igor's failed campaign against the Polovtsians in $1185$.     * Idea: Plea for unity; discord is weakness.     * Imagery: Nature behaves like a living character (the sun warns, the wind helps). Features the "Lament of Yaroslavna" (love/loyalty) and the "Golden Word of Svyatoslav" (call for unity).
• "Journey Beyond Three Seas" (Khozhdeniye za Tri Morya) by Afanasy Nikitin:     * Author: A merchant from Tver; traveled $1468$–$1474$.     * Content: First Russian description of a journey beyond Rus (to India). Focuses on comparing cultures while remaining loyal to the Motherland (Patriotism).

Classicism in Russian Literature ($XVII$ – early $XVIII$ Century)

• Core Principles: Reason (Razum), Order, and Rules. Based on Latin "classicus" (exemplary).
• Aesthetics: Harmony, symmetry, clarity. Heroes are strictly "good" or "bad."
• Classicism in Russia: Focused on Reason + Benefit + Patriotism. Literature became a tool of Enlightenment.
• System of Genres:     * High Genres: Ode (solemn praise), Tragedy.     * Low Genres: Comedy (satire), Fable, Heroic Poem.
• The Law of Three Unities in Drama:     1. Unity of Place: One location.     2. Unity of Time: Actions occur within $24$ hours.     3. Unity of Action: One main plot line.
• M.V. Lomonosov ($1711$–$1765$): The "Father of Russian Poetry" and a universal genius (scientist, poet, artist). Founded Moscow University ($1755$). His odes (e.g., "On the day of accession of Empress Elizabeth") emphasized that Russia could produce its own "Platos and Newtons."
• G.R. Derzhavin ($1743$–$1816$): Created the "Programmatic Ode." Mixed "high" and "low" styles. Key works: "Felitsa" (praised Catherine II), "The Nobleman" (criticized corruption), "To Rulers and Judges" (demanded justice).
• D.I. Fonvizin ($1745$–$1792$): Known as the "Father of Russian Comedy." His masterpiece "The Minor" (Nedorosl - $1782$) explores the conflict between ignorance (the Prostakov family) and enlightenment (Starodum, Pravdin). Famous quote: "I don't want to learn, I want to marry!" (Mitrofan).

Sentimentalism and N.M. Karamzin ($1766$–$1826$)

• Principles: Feeling is more important than Reason. The focus shifted to the inner world of the "simple person" (the commoner). Nature reflects the character's soul.
• N.M. Karamzin: Reformed the Russian literary language, making it closer to spoken speech (introduced words like "impression," "influence," "epoch").
• "Poor Liza" (Bednaya Liza - $1792$): A sentimental story about a peasant girl Liza and the nobleman Erast. Famous logic: "Even peasant women know how to love."

The Golden Age of Russian Literature

• V.A. Zhukovsky ($1783$–$1852$): The teacher of Pushkin and founder of Russian Romanticism. Master of the ballad (e.g., "Svetlana") and elegy. Focused on the "romanticism of the heart."
• A.S. Griboyedov ($1795$–$1829$): Authored "Woe from Wit" (Gore ot Uma). This "high comedy" depicts the conflict between the "current century" (the intelligent, idealist Chatsky) and the "past century" (Famusov's conservative society).
• A.S. Pushkin ($1799$–$1837$): The "Our Everything." Created the modern Russian literary language. Key works:     * Lyric Cycles: Freedom-loving ("To Chaadayev"), Lyrical ("I remember a wonderful moment"), Philosophical.     * "Eugene Onegin": A novel in verse; called an "Encyclopedia of Russian life." Features the "Superfluous Man" (Onegin) and the moral ideal (Tatiana Larina).
• M.Y. Lermontov ($1814$–$1841$): Known for psychological realism and pain. Key works:     * "A Hero of Our Time": First Russian psychological novel; follows Pechorin, a "portrait of a generation's vices."     * Poetry: "Death of a Poet," "Borodino," "Motherland."

Realism and Later Masters

• N.V. Gogol ($1809$–$1852$): Master of "realism through exaggeration." Explored the "Little Man" (e.g., "The Overcoat"). Key works: "Dead Souls," "The Inspector General."
• Poets of the Era:     * N.A. Nekrasov: "Poet of the people"; focused on suffering and social injustice.     * F.I. Tyutchev: "Poet of thought"; metaphysical and landscape poetry ("Russia cannot be understood with the mind").     * A.A. Fet: "Poet of beauty"; focused on nature and love (impressionistic style).
• I.S. Turgenev ($1818$–$1883$): Explored nihilism and the generation gap in "Fathers and Sons" (Bazarov vs. Pavel Petrovich).
• F.M. Dostoevsky ($1821$–$1881$): Explored the depths of the human soul, conscience, and faith. Key works: "Crime and Punishment," "The Idiot," "The Brothers Karamazov."
• L.N. Tolstoy ($1828$–$1910$): Fundamental philosopher and novelist. Key works: "War and Peace" (historical process), "Anna Karenina" (family structures), "Resurrection."
• A.P. Chekhov ($1860$–$1904$): Innovator in the short story and drama. Emphasized subtext ("undercurrent") and ordinary life. Key works: "The Cherry Orchard," "The Lady with the Dog."
• A.N. Ostrovsky ($1823$–$1886$): Established the Russian national theater. Masterwork: "The Storm" (Groza), featuring Katerina as a "ray of light in the dark kingdom."

The Silver Age ($1890$s – $1920$s)

• Symbolism: A. Blok (Waiting for the "Beautiful Lady").
• Acmeism: A. Akhmatova (clarity and earthiness).
• Futurism: V. Mayakovsky (destruction of old forms, cult of the future).
• Peasant Poetry: S. Yesenin ("The last poet of the village").
• Realism in the Silver Age: I. Bunin (Noble laureate), A. Kuprin ("Garnet Bracelet").