AQA GCSE PE Sport Psychology and Socio-cultural Influences Study Guide
Classification of Skills and Abilities
Skills (Definition): Skills are learned actions which allow you to complete an activity in a successful manner. They can be improved by regular practice.
Abilities (Definition): These are inherent qualities linked to movement, e.g. coordination. They cannot easily be altered and influence how well you can develop skills.
Gross Skills:
Involve large, imprecise body movements.
Fundamental body movements.
Examples: Jumping in netball, Gymnastics somersault.
Fine Skills:
Require precision.
Small body movements.
Example: Badminton forehand.
Basic Skills:
Simple to perform.
Require little concentration.
Simple movements.
Complex Skills:
Difficult to learn.
Require high concentration.
Complicated subroutines.
Open Skills:
Affected by external stimuli, e.g. opposition or environmental factors.
Initiated and performed in response to a stimulus.
Usually externally paced.
Example: Baseball catch.
Closed Skills:
Not affected by external stimuli, e.g. opposition or environmental factors.
Initiated and performed at a time chosen by the performer.
Usually self-paced.
Examples: Gymnastic floor routine, Sprint start, Swimming front crawl.
Self-paced Skills:
Initiated and performed at a time chosen by the performer.
Externally paced Skills:
Initiated and performed in response to a stimulus.
Skill Continua:
Sport skills have many characteristics and these can change in different scenarios and situations that a sportsperson comes up against. This makes it challenging to categorise skills; therefore, they have to be placed on a continuum.
Revision Success Tip: A skill may differ depending on the scenario in which it’s performed, e.g. a rugby player kicking for touch as a penalty could be classified as a closed and self-paced skill; however, when kicking for touch in a game situation, the pressure from opposition charging down makes it an open and externally paced skill.
Mixed Categorization Example: Tennis serving requires fine movements for accuracy and precision, but requires large, gross whole-body movements.
Goal Setting and the SMART Principle
Purpose of Goal Setting: In order for an athlete to improve their level of skill (and, therefore, performance), it is important that they set themselves goals.
Performance-based goals:
Goals which are concerned with how well an athlete performs a given task and do not require comparisons to other athletes.
Examples: To improve your slice serve so that of your serves go in; increasing serve accuracy; achieving a personal best; improving a skill.
Outcome-based goals:
Goals which are concerned with how well an athlete performs in comparison to other athletes or the result of a competition.
Examples: To reach the finals of a tournament; winning a match; winning the gold medal; selection for an international squad.
Evaluation of Goals:
The two types of goals can be used together.
Outcome goals are considered to be the least effective types of goals because they can be affected by external factors, e.g. how well the other team plays.
Outcome goals can be demotivating.
Performance goals are more appropriate for beginners.
The SMART Principle:
S - Specific: e.g. reducing the time taken to cover the last of an race by .
M - Measurable: i.e. measures can be taken before and during a training programme in order to track progress.
A - Accepted: i.e. the coach and athlete discuss the goal and come to an agreement.
R - Realistic: i.e. the athlete has the ability and resources to achieve the goal; this can be achieved by setting a goal based on their previous progress.
T - Time-bound: i.e. a time frame is agreed upon in which the athlete should reach their goal.
Basic Information Processing Model
Definition: Information processing is the process by which athletes respond to the changing environment that they are in. In order to do so, they need to identify the important cues and formulate a movement pattern.
1. Input:
Performers receive information from their senses (the display).
The information is processed by the performer.
Selective Attention: Involves focusing on a specific stimulus and ignoring irrelevant information.
Footballer Example: The footballer receives information from his senses about the position of himself, the opponent, and the ball. He will selectively ignore fans shouting from the sidelines.
2. Decision Making:
Decisions are made regarding the input received.
Determines what, where, when, and how the performer responds to the information.
Decision making is made more effective through experience.
Footballer Example: The player recalls past experience of an opposition defender coming towards him at speed. He remembers that last time a lofted pass he made was successful and selects to perform this skill again.
3. Output:
Information is sent to the muscles once a decision is made.
The muscles initiate a coordinated reaction to perform the skill decided on.
Footballer Example: The player performs the lofted pass to a player running in behind the defence. The player’s muscles initiate the contractions required to perform the lofted pass skill.
4. Feedback:
Feedback is received in two ways: Internal (how the movement felt) and External (from other sources, such as teammates or coaches).
Positive feedback reinforces actions.
Negative feedback helps identify areas for improvement.
Footballer Example: The response to the output was a goal being scored. This reinforces the actions of the lofted pass and motivates reuse. The performer will know how the skill feels when performed correctly.
Guidance and Feedback on Performance
Guidance (Definition): Used to help athletes learn new skills and develop old skills.
Types of Guidance:
Visual Guidance: Athletes watch demonstrations of a skill.
Beginners: Learners could become bored.
Elite: More capable of applying information seen without needing manual or mechanical guidance.
Verbal Guidance: Athletes listen to instructions about a skill.
Beginners: Coach must ensure language is suitable.
Elite: More capable of applying verbal information as they understand technical terminology.
Manual Guidance: Coach physically manipulates an athlete into the correct positions.
Beginners: Useful for developing kinaesthetic understanding and reducing injury risk in dangerous skills. Difficult to use with multiple learners.
Mechanical Guidance: Aids are used to assist with skill development.
Beginners: Develops kinaesthetic feel and reduces risk of injury. Requires specialized equipment.
Feedback (Definition): Used to inform athletes whether their performance was successful or not, to provide information to aid future performances.
Types of Feedback:
Positive Feedback: Confirmation of doing something correctly.
Beginners: Essential for motivation to prevent demotivation.
Negative Feedback: Identification of what the athlete is doing wrong.
Elite: Highly motivated athletes can accept negative feedback and make adjustments.
Knowledge of Performance: Based on how well an athlete has completed a skill or task.
Beginners: Appropriate when their skill level isn't high enough for knowledge of results to be effective.
Knowledge of Results: Based on the outcome of a competition.
Elite: Motivated by success or motivated to improve when defeated.
Intrinsic Feedback: From internal sources (how the movement feels).
Elite: Greater understanding due to hours of practice; use kinaesthetic understanding to guide future performance.
Extrinsic Feedback: From external sources (e.g., coach's words or crowd reaction).
Beginners: Necessary because they don't have a complete understanding of skills to use intrinsic feedback.
Mental Preparation for Performance
Arousal (Definition): An athlete’s state of physical and psychological readiness for performance.
Inverted-U Theory: As arousal increases, there is an increase in performance up to a certain point (), after which the performer becomes over-aroused and performance levels fall.
Optimal Arousal Levels:
Low Optimal Arousal: Required for Fine Skills (e.g., Snooker shot, Putting in golf, Archery shot, Shot in curling, Rugby penalty kick, Basketball free throw).
High Optimal Arousal: Required for Gross Skills (e.g., Rugby tackle, Triple jump run-up, Boxing uppercut, sprint, Hockey dribble, Swimming butterfly stroke).
Revision Success Tip: Optimal arousal levels can differ between skills of the same sport.
Stress Management Techniques:
Deep Breathing:
Athlete should find a relaxing environment.
Perform a series of slow, deep, rhythmic breaths to become relaxed.
Imagery:
Athlete visualises/mentally rehearses themselves performing.
Focuses on the skills needed and picturing positive outcomes to increase confidence.
Positive Self-talk:
Pep-talk designed to increase confidence.
Repeat positive phrases like 'I can do this' during training or before/during competition.
Psychological Components: Personality, Aggression, and Motivation
Personality Types:
Introvert: Shy, thoughtful, enjoys being alone, high concentration levels. Preference for sports requiring low arousal/fine skills (e.g., less fast-paced sports).
Extrovert: Enjoys social interaction, dislikes being alone/gets bored easily. Preference for sports involving gross skills and fast-paced games (requires lower levels of concentration).
Aggression (Definition): A hostile act resulting from an individual becoming frustrated or angry.
Direct Aggression: Anger taken out directly on another individual (e.g., rugby player trampling another, hockey player hitting opponent with stick, American football player headbutting).
Indirect Aggression: Anger taken out on an object without touching another person (e.g., smashing a tennis racquet, throwing a volleyball away, punching the floor).
Motivation:
Intrinsic Motivation: From within (feelings of pride, satisfaction with performance, and personal improvements).
Evaluation: Considered most effective; results in greater participation and sustained effort.
Extrinsic Motivation: From external sources (coaches, medals, trophies, applause).
Evaluation: Can quickly motivate and provide pride, but considered less effective long-term. Overuse can devalue intrinsic motivation or make the athlete dependent on rewards.
Engagement Patterns of Different Social Groups
Social Groups: Gender, Religion/Race/Culture, Age, Family, Disability.
Factors Influencing Engagement:
Attitudes: Views on activities (e.g., women viewing rugby as masculine; parental attitudes influencing children).
Role Models: Lack of female or ethnic role models (e.g., few black swimmers) impacts participation. Recent Paralympic Games have increased disabled role models.
Accessibility: Lack of facilities, teams (e.g., female rugby), or transport. Religious restrictions (e.g., Jewish Sabbath).
Media Coverage: Less coverage for female and disabled sport negatively impacts participation.
Stereotyping: Concepts like boxing being masculine or certain races being suited to specific sports.
Culture/Traditions: Views on appropriate clothing or family priorities.
Disposable Income: Wage gaps, gym membership fees, or inability to work due to disability.
Adaptability: Rule changes to accommodate groups (e.g., head coverings in football for Muslim women; adapted sports for disabled/elderly).
Commercialisation in Physical Activity and Sport
The Commercial Triangle: Relationship between Sport, Sponsorship, and Media.
Definitions:
Commercialisation: Promoting a product to an audience.
Sponsorship: Money invested to create an association with a sport, team, or athlete (Financial, Clothing, Facilities, Equipment).
Media: Communication methods (TV, Radio, Newspaper, Social Media, Internet).
Positive Effects:
Performers can focus on training due to financial support.
Sport quality and viewing experience improves.
Sponsors increase profits/publicity.
Funding for training officials.
Negative Effects:
Performers distracted by commercial interests (e.g., acting in adverts).
Gap widens between popular and less popular sports.
Schedule changes to meet media/sponsor needs.
Adverts disrupt game flow.
Reputation damage if associated with deviant players/teams.
Technology in Sport
Specific Technologies:
Hawk-eye (Tennis/Cricket): Determines ball trajectory to assist official decisions.
Television Match Official (TMO - Rugby): Uses replays and slow motion for decision-making.
Goal-line Technology (Football): Determines if a ball crossed the line.
Advantages:
Increased viewing quality and performance levels.
More accurate official decisions through analysis tools (Hawk-eye).
Improved sponsor opportunities (electronic ad boards).
Disadvantages:
Expensive (not available for all).
Disrupts game flow.
Performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) can become harder to detect as technology evolves in the lab.
Officials' roles may be reduced or their decisions questioned more.
Ethical and Socio-cultural Issues
Prohibited Substances and Methods:
Stimulants: Provide energy, delay fatigue. Side effects: sleep disturbance, heart problems.
Narcotic Analgesics: Painkiller (e.g., for training with injury). Side effects: nausea, addiction.
Anabolic Agents: Aid muscle development (strength gain). Side effects: aggression, heart/liver problems.
Peptide Hormones: Increase oxygen transport (EP - delay fatigue). Side effects: heart disease, heart problems.
Diuretics: Weight loss (e.g., for boxing weigh-in). Side effects: dehydration, kidney problems.
Beta-blockers: Reduce heart rate/tension for fine control (e.g., snooker). Side effects: nausea, heart problems.
Blood Doping: Removing, freezing, and re-injecting blood prior to competition to increase red blood cells/cardiovascular endurance. Risks: Blood viscosity, heart attack, embolism.
Conduct of Performers:
Etiquette: Following unwritten rules (e.g., giving ball back after injury).
Sportsmanship: Respecting opposition (e.g., forming a tunnel).
Gamesmanship: Bending rules for advantage (e.g., blocking without fouling).
Contract to Compete: Following rules/trying to win (not 'showboating').
Impact of Spectators and Hooliganism
Positive Effects of Spectators: Positive atmosphere, home team advantage.
Negative Effects of Spectators: Pressure on athletes, violence (hooliganism), increased security costs.
Causes of Hooliganism: Rivalry (local teams), frustration (official decisions), gangs, media hype, alcohol, showing strength/bravery.
Strategies to Combat Hooliganism:
Earlier kick-off times.
Removing standing space.
Segregating fans.
Preventing alcohol consumption within grounds.
Banning hooligans and educating the public.
Health, Fitness, and Diet
Health Definitions:
Physical: Improved heart function, weight control, disease prevention.
Mental: Reduced stress, increased self-esteem (release of Serotonin), improved sleep.
Social: Making friends, teamwork, essential human needs.
Sedentary Lifestyle: A life involving little physical activity. Leads to: Weight gain, poor sleep, lethargy, hypertension, diabetes.
Obesity: Large fat storage impacting health. Performance effects: Reduced cardiovascular endurance, flexibility, agility, speed.
Somatotypes:
Ectomorph: Lean and long, light frame (Endurance events).
Endomorph: High body fat, wide hips (Strength sports).
Mesomorph: Wide shoulders, muscular, lean (Power sports).
Nutrients in Balanced Diet:
Carbohydrates (): Main energy source.
Fats (): Energy source for low-intensity work.
Proteins (): Muscle growth and repair.
Vitamins/Minerals: Ensure body systems function effectively.
Energy Requirements: Average man needs ; average woman needs . Needs vary by Age, Gender, Height, and Activity Level.
Dehydration Impacts: Increased blood viscosity, increased heart workload, increased body temperature, muscular fatigue, increased reaction time.