APUSH Period I Notes: 1491 - 1607

Native American Societies Before European Colonialism

  • Early Ice Age c. 12,000 years ago: Sea levels decreased to expose land between Asia and the Americas, forming the Bering Land Bridge between eastern Russia and Alaska. This allowed individuals to migrate to the Americas.

    • Alternative Theories: Some suggest that Native Americans had already been in the Americas prior to this migration, potentially having arrived by boat.

  • 5000 BCE: Domestication of corn (maize) in Mexico marked a pivotal shift allowing hunter-gatherer societies to settle, leading to agricultural societies.

    • This led to the establishment of permanent agricultural communities resulting in:
    • Economic Development:
      • Emergence of prosperous cities like Tenochtitlán, the Aztec empire's capital.
      • Increased trade resulted in food surpluses, allowing populations to focus on diverse production activities.
    • Social Structure Diversification:
      • Specialized labor emerged due to complex societies formed from sedentary lifestyles.
      • Innovations included irrigation systems developed in various Native American societies.

Regional Characteristics of Native American Societies

  • Southeast/Northeast:

    • Northeast:
    • Lived in structures such as longhouses accommodating multi-generational families.
    • Heavily dependent on maize cultivation.
    • Division of labor: Men hunted, women cultivated crops, leading to greater power for women compared to European societies.
    • Matrilineal Societies: Possessions passed through the mother’s lineage.
    • Mississippian Peoples:
    • Engaged in extensive farming due to favorable climate, forming large towns of 4,000 - 6,000 people.
      • Example: Cahokia in the modern-day St. Louis area had a population ranging from 20,000 to 45,000.
    • Three-Sister Farming:
    • Consisted of corn, beans, and squash planted together, maximizing land use:
      • Corn: Provides structural support for beans.
      • Squash: Protects corn’s roots from predators with its broad leaves.
      • Beans: Enrich nitrogen in the soil, fostering health among the crops.

  • Great Plains/Southwest/Great Basin:

    • Great Plains:
    • Characterized by a dry climate; adopted nomadic lifestyles, relying on hunting bison.
    • Settlement structures included portable teepees.
    • Examples include Sioux and Cheyenne tribes.
    • Southwest:
    • Regions included parts of modern-day Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah.
    • Emphasized irrigation to cultivate maize in arid conditions; inhabited caves and mud dwellings.
      • Examples include ancient Puebloans and Navajo tribes.
    • Great Basin:
    • Located between the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada; comprised hunter-gatherer societies that hunted large game.
      • Examples are Shoshone and Ute tribes.
    • Northwest/Pacific Coast:
    • Established permanent societies heavily reliant on fishing due to proximity to the Pacific Ocean.
      • Examples include Chinook and Tillamook tribes.
    • Overall, Western Native American communities relied more on protein sources than Eastern counterparts due to environmental conditions.

European Society and Colonization

  • Middle Ages (c. 500 - 1400 CE):
    • Plagues such as the Black Death led to decreased populations and increased political/social strife in Europe.
    • Emergence of feudal societies: Lords owned lands, knights provided military service, and serfs farmed lands under duress.
    • Predominantly Catholic society, with the Pope as the supreme leader.
Motives for European Colonization
  • Three Primary Motives: God, Gold, and Glory
    • God: Driven by the spread of Christianity (Roman Catholic Church went through conflicts such as the Crusades and Reconquista).
  • The rise of Islam led European Christians to reclaim the Holy Land.
  • Martin Luther’s 1517 Protestant Reformation caused further fragmentation within Christianity.
  • Gold: Economic ambitions were ignited following the 1453 Ottoman Empire's seizure of Constantinople, disrupting European-Asian trade routes.
  • Desire for commodities like silk and spices led to maritime exploration and an emphasis on reducing trade costs by establishing direct passage.
  • The Portuguese began navigating towards Africa to access the Indian Ocean, establishing trading posts for more profit.
    • Advancements in technology: Caravels for navigation, lateen sails, and the magnetic compass were critical.
    • Rise of joint-stock companies and transition from feudalism to capitalism ensued.
  • Glory: Competition between nations, particularly Spain and Portugal, spurred exploration.
  • Founded sugar plantations relying heavily on slave labor.
  • Spanish efforts to explore were catalyzed by the funding of Christopher Columbus's expedition in 1492.
    • Initial intention to reach Asia failed; Columbus reached Caribbean islands, naming natives “Indians.”

Key Events of Exploration

  • 1492: Columbus arrives in the Caribbean, specifically San Salvador.
  • 1493: Second voyage funded for establishment of livestock and plantations.
  • Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): Established a line dividing spheres of influence between Spain (west) and Portugal (east) in the New World.
    • This treaty resulted in Brazil becoming a Portuguese territory.
    • Spain gained significant wealth from gold and silver mining, impacting European banking.

The Columbian Exchange

  • Columbian Exchange: The transfer of plants, animals, individuals, and diseases between the Old World and New World initiated by Columbus's arrival.
    • Old World to New World:
    • Diseases: Smallpox, measles, whooping cough resulting in up to 90% decimation of native populations due to lack of immunity.
    • Agricultural products: Wheat, olives, rice, grapes, coffee, and livestock (horses and cattle).
    • New World to Old World:
    • Nutritional staples: Corn, potatoes, and sweet potatoes contributing to European population growth due to caloric density.

Spanish Conquistadors and Their Impact

  • Conquistadors: Spanish explorers who exploited the wealth and resources of Native American empires.
    • Hernan Cortes: Achieved conquest of Tenochtitlán (capital of the Aztec civilization) in 1519 with the assistance of local tribes and disease.
    • Francisco Pizarro: Captured Incan emperor Atahualpa in 1532, leading to the founding of Lima, Peru in 1533.
  • The Encomienda System: A forced labor system combining slavery and feudalism. Encomenderos received land and the right to use Native American labor, with supposed Christianization in return.
    • Racial caste hierarchy emerged:
    • Top: Pure-blood Spanish.
    • Middle: Mestizos (mixed Native American and European descent).
    • Bottom: Indigenous and African peoples.

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

  • African slaves became the main labor force in the New World, largely due to the decimation of Native American populations from diseases.
  • The Middle Passage was crucial in transporting enslaved Africans, who were traded for European goods.

Cultural Interactions between Native Americans and Europeans

  • Land Views:
    • Native American perspective: Land viewed as a communal and spiritual resource.
    • European perspective: Land viewed as a commodity for individual ownership.
  • Trade:
    • Native Americans practiced ceremonial trade, while Europeans approached trade strictly for profit.
  • Gender Roles:
    • Native American women held more influence compared to European women, who were often confined to domestic roles.
  • Religious Practices:
    • Native Americans followed diverse spiritual beliefs, while Europeans were predominantly monotheistic.
  • Initial interactions led to misunderstandings and conflict over land ownership and usage.

Resistance and Cultural Adaptations

  • Indigenous peoples attempted to resist conversion to Christianity and retain their practices while forming strategic alliances.
  • Taino Rebellion (1511): Resistance against Spanish colonizers by the Taino population in Puerto Rico ultimately failed due to superior weaponry.
  • Valladolid Debates: Discussed the humanity of Indigenous peoples. Advocates like Bartolomé de las Casas opposed enslavement, while opponents like Juan Gines de Sepulveda dehumanized Native Americans.