Comprehensive Study Notes on the Composition of Indian Society

Geography and Etymology of India

• Geographic Dimensions: The Indian peninsular sub-continent, known as Bharatvarsha, stretches from the Himalayas in the north to Cape Comorin in the south ($3119\,km$) and from the Bay of Bengal in the east to the Arabian Sea in the west ($2997\,km$).

• Area and Population: It covers a total land area of $32,87,782\,sq.\,km$ ($33\,million\,sq.\,km$). It contains approximately one-fifth ($1/5$) of the total global population, making it the second most populous nation ($15.0\%$ of the world’s population) while occupying only $2.4\%$ of the world’s land area.

• Historical Nomenclature:

  • Bharatvarsha: Named after King Bharata, son of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala.

  • Jambudvipa: Ancient Buddhist and Puranic term meaning the innermost concentric island continent; gained currency from the $3^{rd}$ century B.C.

  • Hindustan: Derived from the river Sindhu (North West). Central Asian travelers used the name 'Hindu' for the river, hence the land became Hindustan and inhabitants 'Hindus'.

  • India: Greek travelers called the river 'Indus'. The British later formalized the name 'India'.

• Society Characteristics: Indian society is over $5000$ years old and highly complex due to the immigration of various races. Key attributes include cultural richness, a multiplicity of social groups, and a unique capacity for accommodation, assimilation, and synthesis.

Caste Composition and Social Stratification

• Etymology: The term 'caste' originates from the Portuguese word 'casta', meaning race or pure stock. It was used by Western outsiders to describe the Indian social organization.

• Definition and Function: Caste is an institution of social stratification and an ideology representing a system of values that legitimizes social inequality. It regulates the world view of Hindu life and assigns status and economic positions.

• System Characteristics: It is an extreme, closed system of stratification where individual social mobility is largely impossible. Individuals are confined to hereditary occupations.

• G.S. Ghurye’s Six Features of Caste:

  1. Segmental division of society: Society is divided into distinct segments.

  2. Hierarchy: A clear ladder of superordination and subordination.

  3. Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse: Rules regarding who may eat with whom.

  4. Civil and religious disabilities and privileges: Different sections have specific rights or restrictions.

  5. Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation: Professions are usually hereditary.

  6. Restrictions on marriage: Strict endogamy (marrying within the caste).

• Demographics: There are approximately $3000$ castes in India. While rooted in Hinduism, caste-like structures are found among Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs.

Tribal Composition of Indian Society

• Demographics: India is home to $84.4\,million$ tribal people across $645$ distinct indigenous stocks. Highest numerical strengths are found in undivided Bihar, Maharashtra, and Odisha.

• Terminologies: Officially known as 'Scheduled Tribes' (STs). Also referred to as Adivasis (indigenous), Vanavasi (forest dwellers), or Pahari (hill people).

• Definitions:

  1. Imperial Gazetteer: A collection of families with a common name, speaking a common dialect, occupying a common territory, originally endogamous.

  2. Hoebel: Each tribe possesses a distinct culture that differentiates it from others.

• Historical Displacement: Tribal habitats have been destroyed over time by Mughal invasions, racial miscegenation, and British policies like the National Forest Policy of $1864$. Industrialization and urbanization further caused the loss of forests, forcing some tribes into criminal activities. During the British period, $28$ communities were labeled 'criminal tribes'.

Religious Composition

• Major Religions Born in India: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.

• Constitutional Protection: Articles 25 to 28 guarantee the fundamental right to freedom of religion, including conscience, practice, propagation, and management of religious affairs.

• Hinduism (2011 Census): $79.8\%$ of the population. Centers around the Indus Valley civilization and shrines. Features include the Kumbhamela at Prayag (confluence of Ganga, Jamuna, and Saraswati). Core concepts: Yoga, meditation, Ayurveda, Karma, and reincarnation.

• Islam (2011 Census): $14.23\%$ of the population. Second largest group and largest minority. India has the world’s third largest Muslim population (after Indonesia and Pakistan). Concentrated in J&K, Lakshadweep, UP, Bihar, WB, Kerala, and Telangana. Sects include Sunni (largest), Sufi, and Ahmadi.

• Christianity (2011 Census): $2.36\%$ of the population. Introduced by St. Thomas on the Malabar coast in $52\,AD$. Expanded by Portuguese (16th century) and British/American missionaries (18th century). Predominant in Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Goa, and Kerala.

• Sikhism (2011 Census): $1.72\,million$ followers ($1.96\%$ in other records). Founded by Guru Nanak ($16^{th}$ century) part of the Bhakti movement. Holy book: Guru Granth Sahib (eternal Guru). Spiritual home: Punjab and neighboring Haryana/Delhi. The 5 K's: (i) Kesh (uncut hair), (ii) Kanga (comb), (iii) Kacch (shorts), (iv) Kara (iron bangle), (v) Kirpan (sword).

• Buddhism (2011 Census): $0.70\%$ of the population. Founded by Gautam Buddha in $6^{th}$ century B.C. Spread via Emperor Ashoka’s patronage in the $3^{rd}$ century B.C.

• Jainism (2011 Census): $0.37\%$ of the population. Named after Jinas (spiritual conquerors). Mahavira ($590 - 527\,B.C.$) was the $24^{th}$ Tirthankara. Core vows: Ahimsa (non-violence) and Asteya (non-stealing).

• Zoroastrianism (2001 Census): $0.06\%$ of the population. Parsis came from Persia in the $7^{th}$ century A.D. to avoid Islamic conversion. Fire worshippers.

Linguistic Composition and Families

• Linguistic Survey of India (George Grierson): Found $179$ languages and $544$ dialects (other reports cite $1652$ mother tongues). Post-independence, states were reorganized on a linguistic basis in $1950/1956$.

• Four Linguistic Families:

  1. Indo-Aryan: Includes Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Assamese, Bengali, Odia, Gujarati, Marathi, Kashmiri. Hindi (written in Devanagri) is the official language.

  2. Dravidian: Languages of southern states: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam.

  3. Austric: Tribal dialects of Central India (e.g., Santhal, Munda, Oraon, Birhor).

  4. Sino-Tibetan: Tribal dialects of North-East (e.g., Angami Naga, Bodo, Manipuri).

• Language Statistics (1991 Census):

  • Hindi: $247.85\,million$

  • Telugu: $72.08\,million$

  • Bengali: $71.78\,million$

  • Marathi: $67.26\,million$

  • Tamil: $60.60\,million$

  • Urdu: $46.11\,million$

  • Oriya: $31.79\,million$

Racial/Ethnic Classification of India

• Dr. B.S. Guha’s Six Main Ethnic Groups:

  1. Negrito: Earliest occupants, dark skin, frizzly hair. Found in Andaman Islands, Kadar, and Irula tribes.

  2. Proto-Australoid: Dominant in Indian tribal populations (Santhals, Mundas, Khonds, Bhils).

  3. Mongoloid: Native to Asia, entered through Tibet/China. Found in North-East (Angami Nagas, Mikir-Bodo).

  4. Mediterranean: Builders of Indus Valley Civilization. Includes Palaeo-Mediterranean and Oriental types. Confined largely to South India (Dravidians).

  5. Western Brachycephals: Divided into Alpinoid, Dinaric (Brahmin of Bengal/Karnataka, Orissans), and Armenoid (Parsees of Bombay).

  6. Nordic: Light skin, blue eyes. Entered around the $2^{nd}$ millennium B.C. through Central Asia. Found in Punjab and Rajputana (Banias, Khattris).

• Herbert Risley’s Seven Types: (i) Turko-Iranian, (ii) Indo-Aryan, (iii) Scytho-Dravidian, (iv) Aryo-Dravidian, (v) Mongolo-Dravidian, (vi) Mongoloid, (vii) Dravidian. This was criticized by D.N. Majumdar for confusing linguistic divisions with racial types.

Unity in Diversity: Concepts and Bonds

• Definition: Unity is a sense of oneness or integration without requiring uniformity. Diversity refers to collective differences (biological, religious, linguistic).

• Bonds of Unity:

  • Geographical Unity: Natural boundaries (Himalayas to the Sea) provide a distinct entity known as Bharatvarsha.

  • Religious Unity: Common concepts ($Karma$, $Dharma$, rebirth) across faiths. The concept of sacrifice and universal brotherhood. Sacred centers (Badrinath, Rameshwar, Puri, Dwarika) and seven holy rivers (Ganges, Jamuna, Godavari, Saraswati, Narmada, Indus, Cauvery).

  • Cultural Unity: Common literature, philosophy, and sanctity of sanskaras. National festivals and a common cultural ideology provided by the caste system.

  • Political Unity: Historical ideal of the 'Chakravarti' (Universal Overlord) achieving central authority (e.g., Sagar, Dasharath, Yudhisthira). Modern unity shown during the Independence struggle and external attacks.

  • Lingual Unity: Sanskrit served as the historical link language and root of modern Indian languages for over $3000\,years$. Prakrit and Pali served as common folk mediums.

  • Jajmani System: A mechanism of functional interdependence between castes. A Jajman (patron) receives services from varied castes (Brahmin priest, barber, washerman) in exchange for goods/payment.

National Integration and Threats

• National Integration: A psychological and educational process of synthesizing divisive elements into a unified whole. Defined by the National Integration Conference as developing solidarity and loyal citizenship.

• Main Threats:

  1. Communalism: Conflicts between religious communities (primarily Hindu-Muslim). Linked by Asghar Ali Engineer to elite conflicts. Rooted in psychological stereotypes, historical grievances, and "Divide and Rule" colonial legacies. Partition in $1947$ remains a definitive traumatic event.

  2. Casteism: Blind loyalty to one's own sub-caste over national interest. Definitions emphasize it as "loyalty translated into politics" (N. Prasad). It affects voting behavior and leads to nepotism and corruption in public life.

  3. Linguism: Hostility over language borders (e.g., Belgaum between Marathi and Kannada) or the implementation of Hindi as the national language. Leads to the "Son of the Soil" theory and regional political group formation.

  4. Regionalism: Extreme loyalty to a particular area. Types: Supra-state (multi-state groups against union), Inter-state (e.g., Kaveri water dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu), and Intra-state (coastal vs. western Odisha). Causes include uneven economic development and administrative imbalances.

Remedial Measures for Integration

• Education: Changing attitudes through the curriculum and fostering nationalist zeal.

• Mass Media: Utilizing programs like 'Mera Bharat Mahan' to inspire unity.

• Sarkaria Commission (1983): Recommended the Three-Language Formula (Regional language, Hindi, English) and retaining English expressions.

• Infrastructure: Developing transport and communication in backward regions to reduce alienation.

• Policy: Banning communal/regional parties, promoting inter-caste/inter-religious marriages, and rebalancing economic investment into neglected zones.