Date and location: midterm next Wednesday, October 1, in this room at class time; attend as you normally would and set up at your usual seat.
Required materials: bring a blue book and a pen or pencil; exam sheets provided; green books are acceptable (blue book not strictly required).
Where to get blue books: from the student store on Martin Luther King Plaza; can look up locations or email the course coordinator or GSIs with questions.
Grade policy: the midterm is not curved; there is an average distribution but no curve applied.
Exam structure: two parts, each worth 50 points (total 100 points).
Part 1: IDs (identifications)
On the exam sheet there will be a list of about 12 terms from the course.
You must pick 5 terms to define and describe: tell who/what the term is, what the idea is, and how it works.
Level of detail: include enough information for the idea to be understood; exact dates are not required, but a rough century or timeframe is helpful.
Rationale: sequence and chronology matter for historical material; understanding order helps grasp how science develops.
Refer to notes and readings for these terms.
Part 2: Significance (for the IDs)
Explain the significance of the term and connect it to other course material.
Build a network of interconnections: relate the term to other figures or concepts in the course (e.g., Kuhn, Popper, logical positivism, or other course material).
Essay portion (Part 3 on the exam, but described as the second major component): one essay responding to a prompt.
Structure: roughly three paragraphs; no need for a formal hook or restatement conclusion.
Content: present an argument about the course material and show how it synthetically fits together.
Evidence: provide concrete evidence from readings and lectures (e.g., references to Beings and Meletus, Kuhn, etc.).
Order of writing: you may write the essay first or the IDs later; not required to time-section the exam into strict blocks.
Time management and pacing:
Exam duration: 80 minutes total (full class time).
Ballpark timing: roughly 40 minutes per major section (IDs and essay), not strictly enforced.
Short-answer length: approximately 3–5 sentences per idea.
Practice and preparation:
Review sessions will include practice material; some GSIs may assign practice IDs to craft questions.
Past midterms will not be released; questions can be discussed with GSIs after lectures.
If extensions exist, the course coordinator Henry Schmidt will email updates.
Miscellaneous: no class a week before the midterm to allow preparation without new material.
Quick logistics note: the instructor mentions some tech hiccups (HDMI cable, computer issues) and the plan to use the images later in the lecture.
Plato and Aristotle: reason vs. experience in knowledge formation
Central debate: whether senses can be trusted for knowledge (Plato) or if sensory experience is the starting point for knowledge (Aristotle).
Plato's position: senses are unreliable for revealing the true nature of the world; knowledge comes from reason and logic; illustrated by the allegory of the cave (we might only know shadows of reality).
Induction problem (black swan): absence of observed instances does not prove nonexistence; our laws are based on observed regularities, not guaranteed universals.
Plato’s challenge to empiricism: what if there are phenomena we cannot detect with instruments? This questions the completeness of empirical knowledge.
Aristotle’s response: trust the senses; knowledge arises from sensory experience, memory, intuition, and categorization; epistemology studies what counts as legitimate knowledge.
Aristotle’s physics: a unified model of the universe based on observation and generalization rather than myth or abstract perfection.
Elements and natural tendencies:
Five elements: earth, water, air, fire, and a celestial element (aether).
Natural places and natural states: each element seeks its natural place and state (e.g., terrestrial elements move toward their places; aether moves in circles).
Natural motion drives the structure of the universe and accounts for change.
The primum mobile (prime mover): the initial cause that sets everything else in motion; without a mover, the universe would be static.
Cosmology: a spherical universe with nested spheres and aether as the celestial realm; the celestial sphere’s motion is circular, reflecting a commitment to circle as a perfect motion in the heavens.
The Aristotelian model is historically coherent and sophisticated, integrating prior ideas from Plato and the Presocratics into a single framework for natural philosophy and physics.
Visual reference: Raphael's School of Athens is discussed as a depiction of Aristotle (right hand pointing toward the senses) and Plato (left hand pointing upward toward the abstract).
Longevity of the model: Aristotle’s cosmology lasted for nearly two thousand years due to its internal coherence and empirical fit within the observed data of the era.
The move from Greece to Rome and the Roman scientific setting
Political context: Greece consisted of city-states (not a unified country); Athens as a center for Plato and Aristotle; Alexander the Great’s campaigns expand Greek influence; after his death, the Macedonian Empire splits under his generals.
Rome’s rise: by 27 BCE, the Roman Republic ends; Octavian (Augustus) rises; Rome consolidates control of the Italian peninsula and much of the Greek world; by the first century CE, the Eastern and Western Roman Empires exist; the Eastern Empire lasts until 1453 with Constantinople’s fall to the Ottoman Empire.
Focus period: the scientific developments during roughly the 0–100 CE era within the Roman Empire, and the shift in scholarly centers and patronage that supports science.
Key figures discussed in this context include Claudius Ptolemy (astronomer and geographer) and Pliny the Elder (natural historian).
Claudius Ptolemy and Babylonian astronomy
Background of Ptolemy: Claudius Ptolemaeus, educated in Aristotelian physics and cosmology, based in Alexandria at the Museum; the museum also housed the Library of Alexandria.
Babylonian astronomy context:
The Babylonians produced highly quantitative observational data: positions of planets, stars, and time of observations.
They divided the sky into 360 degrees, using 12 zodiac signs each spanning 30 degrees (360° = 12 signs × 30°).
Observations were recorded on clay tablets with three data points (three coordinates): ecliptic position (degrees), vertical angle, and observation time via their calendar.
They left behind abundant data but relatively little theoretical modeling of the cosmos.
Aristotle’s cosmology as the received framework among educated Romans: a earth-centered, spherical cosmos with circular motions and the aether as the celestial element.
The problems identified by Babylonian data for Aristotle’s model:
Irregular motion: planets move at different speeds in their orbits.
Retrograde motion: planets occasionally appear to move backward against the sky.
Ptolemy’s approach: do not discard Aristotle’s framework; instead, amend it to fit the Babylonian data.
Reconciliation strategy (Planck-like mindset in astronomy): instead of falsifying Aristotle, modify the model to accommodate data while preserving core ideas.
Two key solutions in the Ptolemaic scheme:
Irregular motion: introduce an eccentric—the Earth is not at the exact center of the deferent; the center of the planet’s circular motion is offset from Earth. The offset point is called the eccentric (and the point opposite Earth is the equant).
Effect: apparent changes in speed arise from viewing geometry rather than actual irregular planetary speeds; the underlying motion remains circular with a fixed orbital speed.
Retrograde motion: introduce the epicycle—the planet itself does not move in a single circle around Earth; instead, it moves on a small circle (epicycle) whose center moves around Earth on a larger circle (the deferent).
Combined motion: the planet’s observed path is the combination of the deferent and the epicycle; when the epicycle motion aligns in a certain way, retrograde motion appears.
The basic mechanism (epicycle/deferent):
Center of epicycle (P) moves on the deferent around Earth.
Planet (Q) moves on the epicycle around P.
The composite path preserves circular motion while fitting observed irregularities, including retrograde looping.
The Almagest (also known as Syntaxis Mathematica): Ptolemy’s comprehensive manual of astronomy, containing the full epicycle/deferent system, numbers, and diagrams; compiled circa the common era (circa 150 CE).
Impact and longevity: the Ptolemaic model closely matched observed planetary motions and remained authoritative for roughly 1,500 years.
Significance: demonstrates how scientists reconcile novel data with an established theoretical framework by refining rather than abandoning core ideas.
Visual note: the classic geometric depiction shows the Earth-centered cosmos with deferents and epicycles; this model became the standard view of the cosmos in the medieval and early modern periods.
Pliny the Elder and the Natural History
Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus): born around 23 CE near Lake Como in Northern Italy; died in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE at about age 56.
Occupation and quality: a Roman military officer (prefect) who used his position to collect material from across the empire; scholars often rely on patronage and social status to pursue science.
The Natural History as a foundational encyclopedia:
The work is the first major attempt to catalog the entire natural world in a single place, organized as a 37-volume encyclopedia.
Scope: astronomy (cosmos), geography, zoology, botany, medicine, mineralogy, and more.
Organization by topics: books 1–6 cover the world (cosmos and geography); books 7–11 cover anthropology and zoology; books 12–19 cover plants; books 20–32 cover medicine; books 33–37 cover minerals and other natural resources.
The Natural History served practical purposes (uses of things) as well as descriptive aims; it integrates natural philosophy with empirical cataloging.
Audience and accessibility:
Written for a broad Roman audience, including educated non-specialists; not heavy on calculations or technical theory.
Emphasizes accessible presentation akin to modern encyclopedias and public museums; aligns with early forms of natural history museums.
The two scientific traditions (natural history vs natural philosophy):
Natural philosophy: seeking causes and explanations for natural phenomena; more theoretical and explanatory.
The Roman era maintains a binary distinction that persists into medieval and early modern thought; this course emphasizes the natural philosophy lineage due to its relevance to astronomy and physics.
Infrastructure and dissemination: why Pliny could publish such a work
Patronage and the military/administrative context allowed access to diverse sources and networks.
The audience’s literacy and the availability of writing materials enabled wider reading beyond specialized scholars.
The concept of a public-spirited encyclopedia foreshadows modern knowledge dissemination through public education and museums.
Education and access to science in Rome:
Education for Roman citizens involved private tutoring or group schooling, with the latter giving rise to classrooms.
Patronage was crucial: scholars relied on wealthy patrons to sustain their research and writing projects.
The social structure restricted access to literate, educated classes; universal public education as we know it did not exist then (emerges much later in the modern era).
Practical implications:
Natural history provided immediate, practical knowledge (uses of minerals, medicines, agriculture, etc.).
The separation between cataloging and theory raises questions about how knowledge is produced, used, and disseminated in different cultural contexts.
Closing thematic note: the chapter closes by highlighting infrastructure—patronage, tutoring, and schooling—as essential to producing and sustaining knowledge, just as today’s science depends on funding and institutional support.
Preview: the lecture then moves to Islamic scholars, who build on Greek and Roman traditions, expanding institutions and frameworks for science across the medieval world.
Connections, implications, and synthesis
Historical continuity: from Plato and Aristotle through Ptolemy and Pliny, the course traces how ideas endure, adapt, and interweave with data from different cultures (Babylonians, Egyptians, Romans).
Methods and epistemology:
The shift from relying solely on idealized, abstract models to integrating empirical observations (Babylonian data) while preserving core theoretical commitments (Aristotle’s physics) exemplifies a long-standing tension in science: theory-guided data vs. data-driven theory revision.
Ptolemy’s approach illustrates a pragmatic reconciliation: preserve explanatory power and predictive accuracy by refining the model (epicycles, eccentrics) rather than discarding the framework.
Social context of science:
Access to education and scientific work is mediated by wealth, patronage, and institutional settings (e.g., the Museum in Alexandria).
The emergence of classrooms and public-facing knowledge (Pliny’s Natural History, early encyclopedic writing) foreshadows modern science communication and public science infrastructure.
Real-world relevance and ethical considerations:
The midterm logistics reflect practical concerns about fairness, assessment design, and time management in education.
The discussion of who gets to produce knowledge and who has access to education raises ethical questions about equity, social status, and the distribution of intellectual labor.
Philosophical reflections:
The lecture foregrounds epistemology (what counts as knowledge) and the nature of scientific progress (the role of anomalies, crises, and paradigm shifts in a Kuhnian sense).
The historical narrative invites reflection on how scientific communities decide to modify or replace theories in light of new data and the social structures that support or constrain those decisions.
Key dates and numbers (for quick reference):
Zodiac and astronomy data: 360° sky divided into 12 signs of 30° each; three data points per observation; Babylonian tablets recorded positions, vertical angles, and observation times.
Ptolemy’s model: Earth-centered cosmos using deferents, epicycles, eccentrics, and equants; Almagest as the authoritative text for about ~1500 years.
Pliny the Elder: Natural History published near the end of his life (1st century CE); 37 volumes spanning cosmos to minerals.
Rome timeline highlights: fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE; Eastern Empire persists until 1453 CE.
Open questions and future topics:
How Islamic scholars inherited and transformed Greek and Roman scientific traditions.
How new institutions and technologies changed science during the medieval and early modern periods.
Highlights to remember for exam readiness
You will need to explain both parts of the IDs: definition/description and significance (synthetic connections).
The significance portion expects you to weave terms into a broader network of course concepts (e.g., Kuhn, Popper, Positivism, or cross-topic links).
The essay should articulate a coherent argument with concrete evidence from the course material, not just abstract statements.
When discussing Aristotle, remember the sequence: sensation → memory → intuition → categorization → logic; and the core concepts of natural place, natural motion, and the prime mover.
When discussing Ptolemy, be able to describe the deferent–epicycle system, eccentric, and equant, and why they were needed to align theory with Babylonian observations.
When discussing Pliny, recognize natural history as an early encyclopedia and its role in disseminating knowledge to a broad audience, in contrast with natural philosophy’s focus on causes and explanations.
Acknowledge the social and infrastructural factors that sustain scientific work across different eras (patronage, tutoring, schooling, museums, libraries).
Key terms to review (quick reference)
Identifications (IDs):
Allegory of the Cave, epistemology, natural philosophy, cosmology, aether, five elements, natural places, natural motion, prime mover, deferent, epicycle, eccentric, equant, Almagest, Syntaxis Mathematica, Babylonian astronomy, zodiac, annals of the museum in Alexandria, Pliny the Elder, Natural History, patronage, tutu
Significance connections: Kuhn, Popper, logical positivism, paradigm shifts, Planck-like incrementalism in theory change