Field Methods in Psychology – Quick Reference Notes

Why Study Research Methods

  • You encounter research claims daily; critical thinking helps separate science from hype or poor studies.

Ways of Knowing

  • Intuition: gut feelings; can be biased and lead to illusory correlations.
  • Authority: beware experts without relevant background; peer review helps validate.
  • Empiricism: knowledge from observation and measurement; the basis of science.
  • Scientific Skepticism: ideas must be testable, falsifiable, and replicable; evidence matters.

The Scientific Approach

  • Science follows a systematic path: Ask a question, Collect data, Analyze it, Draw conclusions, Share results for critique.

Systematic Approach: Key Steps

  • Ask a Question: identify a phenomenon or issue to explore.
  • Collect Data: use systematic methods; define variables clearly; ensure ethical data collection.
  • Analyze It: organize data; look for patterns, correlations, themes; use statistics or thematic coding.
  • Draw Conclusions: relate findings to the original question; acknowledge limitations and alternative explanations.

Data-Driven, Replicable, Adversarial, Peer-Reviewed

  • Data-Driven: conclusions rely on observable data.
  • Replicable: others can repeat the study and obtain similar results.
  • Adversarial: ideas compete; strongest evidence prevails.
  • Peer-Reviewed: experts critique before publication; quality is scrutinized.

What is a Peer-Reviewed Journal Article?

  • Abstract, introduction, methods, results, limitations, conclusions (format varies by discipline).
  • Look for: author credentials, publisher, references, clear methodology, discipline-specific language.
  • Goal: ensure rigor before dissemination.

How to Find & Read Peer-Reviewed Articles

  • Check author credentials and affiliations.
  • Verify the publisher (scholarly societies, university presses, major publishers).
  • Review references to trace sources.
  • Assess article structure and clarity.
  • Language is discipline-specific; not always accessible to non-experts.

Watch Out for Pseudoscience

  • Warning signs: cannot be tested or verified; vague/emotional language; relies on testimonials; lacks method.
  • Examples: astrology, graphology, untestable claims.
  • Real-world dangers: misleading claims can lead to harmful decisions.

More Pseudoscience Examples

  • Facilitated communication: initial claims suggested autism communication via facilitator, but proper testing showed the messages came from the facilitator, not the child; led to serious real-world harms.

Goals of Scientific Research

  • Descriptive (Description): describe patterns and contexts of behavior.
  • Predictive (Prediction): identify patterns/correlations to forecast outcomes.
  • Causal (Determination of Causality): determine whether X causes Y.
  • Explanatory (Understanding/Explain): explain why phenomena occur; link to theory.

Descriptive Example

  • Teens’ TikTok usage hours described without explaining why behaviors occur.

Prediction vs Causation

  • Prediction: correlations help identify at-risk groups for interventions.
  • Causation: beware that correlation does not equal causation; require evidence of causality.

Determining Causality: The Gold Standard

  • To prove causation, three criteria must be met:
    • \text{Temporal Precedence: } \text{Cause comes before effect}
    • \text{Covariation: } X \text{ and } Y \text{ vary together}
    • \text{No Alternative Explanations: Nothing else explains the relation}
  • Example: violent video games cause aggression only if these conditions hold and alternate explanations are ruled out.

Determining Causality in the Field

  • In real-world settings, hard to control all variables; use quasi-experimental designs or longitudinal studies to infer causality.
  • Example: compare communities with/without a peer-led reproductive health program and track results over time.

Why Explain Behavior?

  • Explanation links observations to theory; investigates mechanisms (e.g., poverty affecting academic performance via resources, stress, or support).
  • Consider multiple mechanisms (stigma, past trauma, cultural values) to understand why a behavior occurs.

Basic vs Applied Research

  • Basic Research: seek foundational knowledge; aim to understand mechanisms and test theories.
  • Applied Research: solve real-world problems; implement interventions and evaluate effectiveness.

Basic vs Applied: Examples and Purpose

  • Basic: memory encoding mechanisms using fMRI; understanding attention, development, or emotion regulation.
  • Applied: evaluating a school mental health program to reduce anxiety; testing a resilience-building intervention.

Interconnection of Basic and Applied

  • Basic research provides theory; applied research tests and refines theories in real-world settings.
  • Theoretical advances from basic research inform practical applications; successful applications raise new questions for basic research.

Quick Practice: Evaluation Questions (Eight Key Questions)

  • What was the goal? (Description, Prediction, Causation, or Explanation) 8
  • What method was used? (Survey, Experiment, Observation) 8
  • What was measured? How were variables defined? 8
  • Who were the participants? Can results be generalized? 8
  • What were the findings? What do the data actually show? 8
  • Have others found similar results? Was there replication? 8
  • What are the limitations? Sample size, biases, ethical concerns? 8
  • Was the study safe and respectful? 8

Final Reminders

  • Always distinguish descriptive, predictive, causal, and explanatory aims.
  • Consider the strength of evidence: data-driven, replication, peer-review, and potential biases.
  • Use systematic questions to evaluate any research quickly during review or exam prep.