On the Verge of Death- Visions of Biological Vulnerability Author(s)- Carlo Caduff

On the Verge of Death: Visions of Biological Vulnerability

Author Information

Author: Carlo CaduffSource: Annual Review of Anthropology, 2014, Vol. 43 (2014), pp. 105-121Publication: Annual ReviewsStable URL: JSTOR Link

Abstract

Keywords: risk, danger, state, security, surveillance, diseaseThe article meticulously examines the construct of biosecurity within the complex context of global health, capitalism, neoliberal ideologies, and technological advancements. It argues that the analysis of institutional responses and public perceptions regarding biological threats is significant for understanding aspects of post-Cold War global capitalism, particularly in regions of the Global North and South. The literature review presented introduces a theory of security performativity that seeks to elucidate how biosecurity functions across various academic disciplines and societal domains.

Introductory Context

Shift in Political Attention: Over the last two decades, biosecurity has emerged as a topic of considerable political focus, regulation, and innovation, especially in the United States. The concerns surrounding biosecurity span a broad spectrum, including bioterrorism, the threat of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, animal health issues, and environmental risks posed by globalization and climate change.Biosecurity Narratives: The rise in media discussions related to biosecurity has intensified public fear and uncertainty regarding biological vulnerabilities. This coverage often emphasizes the potential dangers, further compounding societal anxieties about health crises and governmental responses.

Literature Review

Global Perspectives on Biosecurity

Emerging Scholarship: Influential works like Lakoff & Collier's Biosecurity Interventions demonstrate how biosecurity has not only shaped regulatory norms but also facilitated an integration of health concerns with national and global security paradigms, reflecting an emergent approach to governance.Ethnographic Insights: Diverse actors, including policymakers, scientists, and the public, respond differently to perceived biological threats, thus highlighting the intricate politics that shape the definition and implementation of biosecurity measures as governmental modalities.Second-Order Observations: Building on the concept put forth by Luhmann, the article encourages critical engagement with expert discourses, focusing on how specialists frame biological threats and the implications of their narratives.

Historical Context and Risks

Biosecurity is intricately tied to a historical continuum of anxieties concerning diseases and environmental stability, particularly within the frameworks of globalization and deregulation. This historical perspective serves as a vital lens through which to understand broader geopolitical concerns, notably the interaction between health issues and national security.

Theoretical Contributions

Security Performativity Theory

This innovative theoretical framework introduces a method for examining how biosecurity measures not only react to but also actively create insecurities within societies.Constructivist Approach: The goal is to denaturalize perceived threats by probing into their historical roots, societal implications, and the underlying perceptions that shape public and governmental responses.Implication of Failure: A major theme is that efforts to maintain security often have unintended consequences that heighten insecurities rather than alleviate them, challenging the conventional understanding of preventive measures.

The Dichotomy of Crisis and Chronicity

Case Studies

Public Health Failures: Historical pandemics such as HIV/AIDS have fundamentally disrupted the prevailing notion that humankind had predominantly overcome infectious diseases, thereby revealing deep-seated vulnerabilities in public health infrastructures.Media Influence: Personal accounts and dramatizations in the media can amplify public anxieties regarding biological threats while shaping policy responsiveness through heightened emotional narratives.

The Role of Experts

Experts tasked with responding to these threats can sometimes exacerbate the perceived sense of urgency through selective and strategic communication of risks and responses.Critical Perspectives: New forms of knowledge generated around infectious diseases necessitate a deeper examination of the relationship between risk and governance, highlighting the complex entanglements between scientific expertise and public policy.

Conclusion: A Future of Ambivalence

Emerging Trends: As public health systems prepare to address future threats, a cultural phenomenon known as "audit culture" is evolving, reflecting a tension between preventive measures and reactive responses. The prevailing expectation that all biological risks should be managed can ironically lead to increased vulnerability and risk factors.Call for Reflection: There is a critical need to reflect on and critique the entrenched narratives surrounding biosecurity, advocating for alternative political frameworks that prioritize everyday vulnerabilities over abstract constructs of security.

References

• Caduff, C. (2014). On the verge of death: Visions of biological vulnerability. Annual Review of Anthropology.

• Fassin, D. (2007). Humanitarianism as politics of life. Public Culture.

• Lakoff, A. (2008). The generic biothreat, or, how we became unprepared. Cultural Anthropology.Other notable references encompass fields ranging from public health to political theory, investigating the interplay of biosecurity with societal constructs.

Response:

1. Focus Points of the Reading: The text meticulously examines the construct of biosecurity within the context of global health, capitalism, and technological advancements. It emphasizes the role of institutional responses and public perceptions regarding biological threats, particularly how these elements are interconnected among various disciplines and societal domains. For example, it states, "The rise in media discussions related to biosecurity has intensified public fear and uncertainty regarding biological vulnerabilities" (p. 106). This indicates a significant societal concern regarding health crises and government responses to biological threats.

2. Key Course Terms and Concepts:

   • Biosecurity: Central to the text, it illustrates how contemporary governance integrates health concerns with national security (p. 105-121).

   • Security Performativity: Introduced as a theoretical framework to analyze how biosecurity measures function and create insecurities within societies (p. 112).

   • Globalization: Discussed in context with environmental risks and health implications from global interactions (p. 107).

   • Risk: A recurrent theme related to political regulation and public health safety (p. 108).

   • Public Health: Evaluated through historical contexts, such as the HIV/AIDS pandemic that revealed vulnerabilities in health infrastructures (p. 115).

3. Connections to Course: This reading connects to previous lectures and discussions regarding the intersection of public health and security narratives. It further elaborates on themes discussed about the socio-political dynamics of health governance, linking back to the concepts of risk management and personal safety expectations within society (p. 110). For example, the discussion regarding the public's emotional response to biological threats echoes earlier discussions on the psychological impacts of health crises.

4. Favorite Concepts or Sections: I particularly appreciated the section that discusses "audit culture," as it reflects the tensions between preventative measures and societal vulnerabilities. The author notes, "the prevailing expectation that all biological risks should be managed can ironically lead to increased vulnerability" (p. 119). I find this concept thought-provoking because it challenges traditional perceptions of safety and management in public health.

5. Short Answer Question: How does the concept of security performativity challenge traditional understandings of biosecurity?

   • In responding, I would highlight that security performativity introduces the idea that biosecurity measures not only react to but also actively shape societal insecurities. This perspective shifts the focus from considering these measures as purely protective to understanding how they may inadvertently create new vulnerabilities and risks, thereby challenging the belief that all preventative strategies equate with enhanced safety.

UNITS:

Unit 1 - The basics

Introduction to Medical Anthropology

Overview of the Subject

Medical Anthropology is a specialized field within anthropology focused on understanding human confrontations with disease and illness. It combines anthropological theories and methodologies to tackle health-related issues and healing practices across diverse cultures.

Understanding Culture

Culture Defined

Culture is defined as a learned pattern of thought and behavior that is shared by a group of individuals. It encompasses beliefs, practices, customs, and values that are passed down through generations. The concept of culture is dynamic; it adapts and changes in response to various influences and is deeply rooted in the symbols of human experience, which play a vital role in how communities understand and interact with health and disease.

Components of Culture

1. Infrastructure: Refers to the material and economic elements of society that shape its functioning. This includes the availability of resources and technology that impact health outcomes.

2. Structure: Involves the social organization of a community, including systems of power, authority, and interpersonal relationships that influence access to healthcare and treatment options.

3. Belief System: Comprises shared symbols, cognitive models, and ideologies that guide how individuals view the world and their health, often influencing the acceptance and practice of various medical systems.

Interconnection of Culture, Biology, and Environment

Humans are open systems that are significantly influenced by cultural, environmental, and social factors. This perspective highlights the importance of considering how these influences interact to shape health behaviors and outcomes, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of health in different contexts.

The Emergence of Medical Anthropology

Historical Context

Medical Anthropology began to gain traction in the 1950s, with the field becoming more distinctly recognized in the 1960s and 1970s. Unlike other traditional subfields of anthropology, it lacks a single theoretical framework, making it a diverse field that draws on various anthropological traditions to inform its approaches.

The Role of Medical Anthropologists

Medical anthropologists play a crucial role in addressing health-related issues by integrating knowledge from diverse anthropological subfields such as biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, and sociology. Their work often involves collaborating with communities to identify health challenges and to develop culturally appropriate interventions.

Approaches to Medical Anthropology

Five Basic Approaches

1. Biological: This approach examines human biology and the physiological aspects of health and disease, exploring how genetics, nutrition, and environmental factors impact health.

2. Ecological: Focuses on environmental influences, this approach investigates how ecological factors—such as the availability of clean air, water, and food—affect health outcomes.

3. Ethnomedical: Highlights the study of traditional medical systems within their cultural contexts, acknowledging the value of indigenous healing practices and beliefs.

4. Critical: This approach scrutinizes the socio-political factors that impact health, including inequalities in access to healthcare based on race, class, and gender, and advocates for social justice in health.

5. Applied: Emphasizes the practical application of anthropological research to actual health problems, integrating findings into healthcare policy and practice.

Core Premises of the Approaches

• A holistic understanding of illness and healing must consider complex interactions between biological, cultural, and environmental factors.

• Recognition that disease is influenced not only by biological factors but also specific socio-cultural behaviors and conditions.

• The interpretation of symptoms and health conditions is mediated through cultural frameworks, highlighting the need for culturally relevant healthcare.

Defining Health

Challenges in Defining Health

Health is not a universally defined concept; it varies across different cultures and communities. What may be considered a healthy state in one culture may differ significantly in another, leading to various interpretations of well-being.

WHO Definition of Health

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), health is defined as "more than the absence of disease"; it is a comprehensive state of emotional, social, and physical well-being. This definition emphasizes the importance of a holistic view of health that includes mental and social dimensions.

Implications of Cultural Conceptualizations of Health

Understanding the normative states of well-being within a culture is essential for identifying health deviations and addressing health issues effectively. Engaging with communities’ definitions of health can lead to more effective health interventions that resonate with their values and practices.

Case Study in Medical Anthropology

Example from Fieldwork

Dr. Kalkowski provides an illustrative example from his fieldwork in the Himalayas involving a young boy suffering from diarrhea due to contaminated water sources. This case highlights the urgent need for both immediate medical treatment and long-term solutions such as improving access to clean water, underscoring the complexity of health problems that require an anthropological lens to address effectively. By combining immediate care with sustainable interventions, the health of the community can be improved in a culturally sensitive manner.

Unit 2 - History

Introduction to Medical Anthropology

Medical anthropology is a subfield that focuses on the complex interactions between health, illness, and culture. It aims to shift the perspectives of medical practitioners to understand and integrate traditional and cultural medical practices with Western medicine, thereby fostering a more holistic approach to healthcare.

Evolution of Medical Practices

Historically, traditional medical practices were often viewed as inferior to Western medicine, which dominated healthcare paradigms. Through time, however, there has been an increased acceptance of complementary belief systems within Western healthcare. This evolution reflects a growing understanding that medical practices are not universally superior but rather culturally specific. Anthropology plays a crucial role in redefining health and disease as social and cultural phenomena, highlighting that health experiences are deeply influenced by societal norms and values.

Key Concepts in Medical Anthropology

The Human Body

In medical anthropology, the human body is seen not only as a physiological entity but also as a site of experience and domination. It becomes a focal point for addressing various social, political, existential, and epistemological issues. This field emphasizes the moral dimensions connected to sickness and suffering, acknowledging that experiences of health are laden with meaning shaped by cultural contexts.

Types of Thinking in Medical Context

Systemic Thinking

Systemic thinking strives for coherence, consistency, and predictability in concepts related to health and disease. This approach is prevalent in Western medical practice, underpinned by the belief in pure, objective science. Knowledge is viewed as a set of blocks forming an unchanging wall—an approach that is meant to be universally applicable, often sidelining individual variations and cultural specifics.

Everyday Thinking

In contrast, everyday thinking offers a condition-contingent, pragmatic approach that focuses on immediate circumstances surrounding health. This perspective accepts unpredictability and acknowledges that failures in healthcare can lead to advantageous outcomes, emphasizing adaptive strategies in the face of diverse health challenges.

Professionalization of Medical Knowledge

Medical knowledge is often viewed as esoteric and is typically held by a privileged few, creating barriers between healthcare practitioners and the average individual. Consequently, the agency in healthcare diminishes for the general public, making individuals less critical of established medical practices and hierarchies. This tendency can lead to a passive acceptance of healthcare norms rather than an active engagement in health management.

Historical Contributions to Medical Anthropology

W.H.R. Rivers

W.H.R. Rivers was a notable physician and early anthropologist who significantly contributed to the field. He authored the seminal work "Medicine, Magic, and Religion," which focused on the interconnectedness of cultural systems in medicine. Rivers pioneered the view of medicine as a cultural system that is deeply interrelated with magic and religion, advocating for a broader understanding of healing practices across different societies.

Theoretical Perspectives on Disease Causation

Rivers proposed a classification of disease causation agents that includes:

• Human agents: Individuals who may cause harm or illness through actions, either intentional or unintentional.

• Natural agents: Environmental factors, pathogens, or biological processes that contribute to health issues.

• Spiritual/Supernatural agents: Beliefs about the influence of spiritual forces or entities on health.

Rivers emphasized the interdependence of these factors, suggesting that a comprehensive understanding of diseases necessitates considering all dimensions simultaneously, rather than isolating them into categories.

Cultural Context in Medical Treatment

Medical anthropology underscores the necessity of understanding local customs and traditions when addressing health issues. The failure to respect and integrate traditional practices into medical interventions can lead to unsuccessful treatment outcomes. Medical anthropologists stress that the root causes of illness may lie in cultural beliefs, social structures, and environmental contexts, not merely in biological factors. By respecting these cultural contexts, healthcare systems can improve patient outcomes and facilitate more effective care.

Unit 4 - Asylum

Introduction to the Lecture

Title: From the Asylum to the Hospital: The Cultural Shaping of DisordersFocus: Examination of the cultural shaping of illness and the societal roles associated with being sick.Key Question: What can sickness do for an individual and society?

Understanding Key Concepts

Disease vs. Illness vs. Sickness

• Disease:

  • Refers to the underlying pathology of a health condition, typically defined through biological and clinical criteria.

  • Viewed from a practitioner's perspective, often quantifiable and measurable through tests and examinations.

• Sickness:

  • Encompasses the social and cultural perceptions surrounding a health condition.

  • Influences societal responses, stigma, expectations, and the roles individuals assume within their communities when they are deemed sick.

• Illness:

  • Represents the personal, subjective experience of symptoms from the patient's point of view.

  • It is about how individuals describe and communicate their health experiences to healthcare providers, highlighting the need for doctors to understand patients holistically.

Social Construction of Reality

Definition

• A mental conception regarding the world that is formed by an individual or a group, illustrating how reality can be shaped by social processes and cultural norms.

Implication

• These conceptions often become standardized and institutionalized across various social and cultural domains, impacting how health and illness are perceived and treated.

Realization

• Often overlooked is the socially constructed nature of our understanding of health and illness, which has significant implications for health expectations, treatment approaches, and societal attitudes toward illness.

Historical Context of the Sick Role

Changing Understandings

• Concepts of illness are subject to change over time, reflecting broader societal transformations and evolving medical knowledge.

• Investigating historical shifts in health concepts reveals how constructed our current understanding is and opens discussions for future changes in healthcare paradigms.

Contribution of Henry Sigerist

Background

• A preeminent medical historian who advocated for healthcare as a governmental responsibility, emphasizing the need for a health system that is accessible and equitable for all.

• He critically analyzed social media’s impact on Saskatchewan healthcare between 1941-1948, exploring how public discourse shapes health policy and patient experiences.

• His vision for ideal healthcare linked societal health responses to insights from social sciences, framing healthcare as a crucial component of social welfare.

Medicine as a Social Science

• Sigerist viewed medicine as more intertwined with human experiences rather than being confined to hard scientific disciplines.

• He championed a holistic understanding of health that includes social, economic, and psychological factors alongside biological considerations.

Questions for Consideration

• How would a broader recognition of medicine as both a social science and a human art shape healthcare practices?

• Might this recognition lead to a more inclusive approach that integrates holistic treatments alongside conventional methods?

• Engage in discussions regarding the contrasts and coexistence of alternative healing practices versus conventional medical treatments.

The Concept of the Sick Role

Characteristics of the Sick Role

• The sick role involves imposed societal values, expectations, and judgments that affect not only individuals who are sick but also their families and support systems.

• Sigerist argued that the significance of physical impairments is less when they do not impede an individual's capacity for work or disrupt their enjoyment of life.

Impact of Illness on Daily Life

• Standard Workday:

  • Typically defined as a Monday to Friday, 9 to 5 work schedule, which can be profoundly impacted by illness.

  • Illness may challenge this established rhythm, fostering anxiety about potential disruptions to professional and personal obligations.

• Sigerist's Definition of Health:

  • He defined health as an undisturbed rhythm of life, one that exists within culturally acknowledged parameters of health.

  • Illness not only disrupts this rhythm but can result in significantly diminished agency and control for the individual affected.

The Experience of Illness

• Suffering encapsulates both mental and physical dimensions, transcending simple definitions of pain to include feelings of passivity and a perceived loss of autonomy within the medical framework.

• The discomfort experienced during illness consists not only of bodily symptoms but also encompasses anxiety stemming from treatment processes and the transition into the role of a patient.

Treatment and Patient Agency

• Active involvement and overcoming the passive nature of simply being a patient are critical for effective recovery.

• Patients often encounter various challenges in navigating their treatment options and maintaining a sense of agency and control throughout the healing process.

This detailed account consolidates the core ideas discussed in the lecture and emphasizes both historical and contemporary implications for understanding the interactions between society, culture, and the experience of being ill.

Response:

Lecture Title: From the Asylum to the Hospital: The Cultural Shaping of Disorders

Three Points of Interest:

1. The distinction made between disease, illness, and sickness.

2. The sick role concept and its implications in society.

3. Henry Sigerist's viewpoint on considering medicine as a social science.

Explanation for Selection:

1. The differentiation between disease, illness, and sickness was underscored during the lecture, particularly at [12:45], where the instructor noted, "Understanding the complexities between these terms is essential for a comprehensive treatment approach." This connects with prior discussions in class about the shift toward patient-centered care, illustrating the need to value personal health experiences alongside clinical definitions when determining effective treatment strategies.

2. The discussion regarding the sick role, highlighted at [22:30], unveiled significant societal expectations that shape how individuals interpret and navigate their experiences of illness. The lecturer remarked, "Societally imposed values shape not only how sick individuals perceive their health but also influence societal responses to their condition." This concept resonates with our discussions about mental health stigma, emphasizing how public perceptions can affect personal struggles and treatment decisions.

3. Henry Sigerist's perspective, mentioned at [33:15], that "medicine must intertwine with social factors to fully grasp the dimensions of health," captured my interest. This point reinforces the idea that health cannot be understood through biological facts alone, advocating for a holistic approach. It relates well to our recent readings on social determinants of health, where factors such as economic conditions and social networks were highlighted as crucial elements in achieving overall health, emphasizing the importance of a multidisciplinary approach in healthcare.

Wished Topics: One aspect I would have liked to see more thoroughly covered is the impact of modern technology, particularly telemedicine, on the concepts of disease, illness, and sickness. As we discussed around [45:00], technological advancements are transforming healthcare access and the dynamics of provider-patient interactions. An exploration of how these advancements dialogue with traditional understandings of the sick role and patient agency could yield valuable insights into contemporary healthcare practices and their future implications.

Exam Questions:

1. Which statement most accurately reflects how societal perceptions of sickness affect individual health experiences? a. Societal perceptions have no effect on health experiences.b. They may introduce stigma influencing treatment-seeking behaviors.c. They only relate to physical symptoms, neglecting mental health.d. They rely solely on medical definitions of illness.

2. True or False: Henry Sigerist contended that the interaction between medicine and society depends only on biological elements, ignoring any social health influences.

Unit 5 - Infectious Disease

Introduction to Infectious Diseases

Understanding the intricate relationship between pathogens, hosts, and cultural practices is crucial in epidemiology.

Importance of Understanding Terms Related to Infectious Diseases

Familiarity with key terminologies is essential for comprehending the mechanisms of disease transmission and the impact of environmental and societal factors on public health.

Key Terms in Infectious Diseases

Pathogen

• Defined as a microorganism that causes disease in a host organism.

• Pathogens can include various organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.

• The concept of 'pathogen' may expand to encompass non-biological entities, such as thoughts or beliefs, particularly in discussions of psychosomatic diseases or the influence of culture on health behaviors.

Vector

• An intermediate species or material that facilitates the transmission of pathogens between hosts.

• Example: Pigs can serve as vectors for pathogens like the influenza virus, acting as a bridge for bird viruses to infect humans, leading to zoonotic diseases.

Host

• An organism, often a human or animal, that is infected or may potentially become infected by a pathogen.

• Hosts can develop varying degrees of immunity based on their previous exposure to pathogens, which can influence the severity and outcome of infections.

Virus

• A microscopic entity consisting of hereditary material (either DNA or RNA) encased in a protein shell; it is considered a non-cellular form of life.

• Viruses cannot reproduce independently and require a host's cellular machinery for replication, thus limiting their ability to spread directly and necessitating host interactions for transmission.

• Historical context: H1N1 virus (Bird Flu) famously utilized pigs as vectors during its transmission cycle to humans, showcasing the role of interspecies interactions in disease spread.

Virulence

• The degree of pathogenicity within a microorganism, indicating its capacity to cause disease in a host.

• Factors influencing virulence include the pathogen's lethality, the mode of transmission, and the duration of infection symptoms on hosts.

• Notably, some pathogens may alter their virulence based on environmental conditions or host responses.

Infectious Disease

• Diseases arising from pathogenic microorganisms that provoke an immunological response in the host.

• Infectious diseases can be contagious and spread from one host to another following replication within the original infected host.

Culture and Infectious Diseases

The interplay between cultural practices and societal organization plays a significant role in the dissemination of infectious diseases, as behaviors, traditions, and health beliefs can impact exposure to pathogens.

Types of Societies and Disease Spread

Small-Scale Scattered Societies

• Generally experience slower disease spread due to limited interpersonal contact and geographical isolation.

• Isolation promotes the development of immunity across generations as members have adapted to local pathogens over time, thereby reducing overall infection risk.

• Healthier living conditions, often characterized by organic lifestyles and sustainable practices, further limit pathogen exposure, fostering resilient health among community members.

Large-Scale Urbanized Societies

• Increased human density and interaction accelerate the transmission of infectious diseases; crowded conditions facilitate close contact.

• Higher levels of waste and polluted environments may create unsanitary conditions that harbor pathogens, leading to outbreaks.

• Urban settings amplify disease spread as mobility increases, allowing pathogens to traverse vast populations and geographic locations more rapidly than in smaller communities.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Societal Structures

Small-Scale Societies

Advantages:

• Less frequent exposure to pathogens due to reduced population density and movement patterns.

• Stability and the potential for immunity development through genetically homogenous populations reduce disease susceptibility.

Large-Scale Societies

Advantages:

• Access to improved healthcare systems, resources, and support networks, aiding community health management.

• Sedentary living can culminate in immunity development against localized pathogens, protecting communities over time.

Disadvantages:

• Greater risk for disease outbreaks due to high levels of trade, travel, and movement, facilitating the entry of foreign pathogens.

• Increased habitat destruction due to urbanization or industrial development raises exposure to zoonotic diseases as humans encroach upon natural wildlife habitats.

Environmental Impact and Disease

• Activities such as deforestation and infrastructure developments contribute to the emergence and spread of infectious diseases by disturbing ecosystems and affecting pathogen-host dynamics.

• The establishment of permanent shelters often creates conditions ideal for disease vectors, increasing the attraction of rodents and insects, which can transmit various diseases through contaminated food and waste.

• Historical epidemics have often occurred due to the lack of immunity in populations exposed to newly introduced diseases following colonial trade routes.

Conclusion: Modern Prerequisites of Disease Spread

• Understanding the significance of environmental changes is paramount in assessing the risks associated with infectious diseases.

• Public health planning must prioritize careful resource management and community protection strategies to minimize exposure to emerging pathogens and enhance disease resilience among populations.

Lecture Responses

1. Lecture Topic: Introduction to Infectious DiseasesThree Points of Interest:

• The role of vectors in the transmission of pathogens (Timestamp: 12:30)

• The impacts of urbanization on disease spread (Timestamp: 23:00)

• The interplay between culture and infectious diseases (Timestamp: 35:45)

2. Explanation of Selections:

• I found the section on vectors particularly eye-opening. As stated at 12:30, the lecturer mentioned, "Vectors serve as essential intermediaries in the transmission of pathogens, such as how pigs can carry viruses from birds to humans." This resonated with my microbiology class, where we studied the mechanisms of zoonotic diseases and their implications for public health.

• The discussion surrounding urbanization struck a chord with me at 23:00, especially when the speaker highlighted that, "Increased human density creates environments ripe for the spread of infectious diseases." This phrase connected directly to a news article I read about COVID-19 outbreaks in major cities, fostering discussions with friends about how urban living can exacerbate health risks during pandemics.

• Lastly, the interplay between culture and infectious diseases provided a profound insight. At 35:45, the lecturer explained, "Cultural practices and societal norms can either mitigate or exacerbate exposure to pathogens, influencing public health outcomes." This information aligns with themes we've covered in public health regarding health behaviors and societal impacts on disease prevention.

3. Additional Coverage Wishes:I wish the lecture had included more about historical pandemics, particularly how urban culture and health behaviors intersected during those times. Specifically, I hoped for a deeper exploration of statements made about how existing societal structures influence responses to disease outbreaks. A comprehensive approach could shed light on how cultural strategies have historically shaped health outcomes and prepared societies for modern challenges.

4. Exam Questions:

• Multiple Choice Question:Which of the following best describes the role of vectors in the spread of infectious diseases?a. They are pathogens themselves.b. They are organisms that can transmit pathogens without being infected.c. They directly cause the diseases in hosts.d. They are a kind of pathogen resistant to environmental changes.Correct Answer: b.

• True or False Question:The urbanization process generally reduces the risk of infectious disease outbreaks due to improvements in healthcare accessibility.a. Trueb. FalseCorrect Answer: b.

Unit 7 - Sorcery and Witchcraft

Sorcery and Witchcraft in Sickness and Health: Overview

Introduction

• The study of sorcery and witchcraft in the context of health and sickness focuses on understanding diverse healing methods that exist outside of mainstream Western biomedical systems.

• These alternative practices often draw from rich cultural traditions, emphasizing the importance of comprehending different frameworks through which societies understand health, illness, and healing.

• Addressing key terms and concepts related to healing will lay the groundwork for future lectures that delve deeper into the roles of various healers and the experiences of patients in these healing practices.

Key Concepts in Healing Methods

• Interpersonal Theory of Disease:

  • This theory posits that diseases can arise from non-biological factors, including spiritual influences, the practice of witchcraft, stress, and interpersonal relationships.

  • It emphasizes the interplay between an individual’s mental state, social environment, and health.

• Question of Belief:

  • An exploration into why individuals or cultures firmly believe in unprovable entities or healing methods is crucial.

  • While biomedicine offers certainty through measurable results, many people pursue deeper spiritual explanations beyond mere physical symptoms, revealing a richer narrative in their healing journeys.

  • The concept of uncertainty plays a vital role in medical discussions, as societies continuously grapple with unpredictable health challenges and the varying interpretations of illness among cultures.

Supernatural and Spiritual Influences

• Supernatural Forces:

  • Defined as entities or powers that exist beyond the natural, observable world, these forces are often integral to cultural beliefs surrounding health and illness.

  • Such beliefs shape how individuals and communities understand their afflictions and the potential for healing.

• Rituals:

  • Rituals are defined as structured sequences of events that include specific gestures, spoken words, and the use of ritual objects. They are performed with the intent to influence supernatural entities.

  • These rituals can be seasonal, aligning with natural cycles or tied to significant life events such as birth, marriage, and death. They create a connection between remote cosmological beliefs and immediate personal crises.

Ritual Symbols and Functions

• Ritual Symbols:

  • Considered the smallest functional units of a ritual, these symbols carry deeper meanings that may not be immediately apparent, often representing complex beliefs and values of the culture.

• Rites of Affliction:

  • These ceremonies specifically address misfortunes attributed to spiritual or supernatural influences. They are aimed at restoring a sense of order within the individual’s life and emphasizing the interconnectedness between the individual and their community.

Impact of Healing Rituals

• Healing rituals serve the dual purpose of addressing physical ailments and alleviating mental distress, providing alternative forms of understanding that differ significantly from modern biomedical interventions.

• Engaging in these communal rituals not only fosters healing for the individual but strengthens community bonds, enabling collective well-being and support among participants.

Definitions and Roles of Healers

• Shaman:

  • Shamans are considered religious specialists whose healing capabilities derive from their direct communication with the supernatural world.

  • Their relationships with community members are crucial, as they often undergo extensive training and are believed to be chosen for their roles by supernatural forces.

• Sorcerer:

  • Sorcerers utilize magical tools to manipulate supernatural forces and are often perceived negatively within their societies.

  • Unlike shamans, sorcerers do not possess inherent supernatural connections; rather, they employ intelligence and crafted tools to invoke influence.

Types of Magic

• Sympathetic Magic:

  • This form of magic operates under the principle of "like produces like," wherein practitioners utilize objects or substances that symbolically correlate with the desired outcome, such as employing specific plants to aid lactation.

• Contagious Magic:

  • Involves the belief that materials or objects that have previously come into contact can continue to influence each other, as exemplified through healing treatments for arrow wounds by utilizing remnants of the weapon.

Witchcraft in Society

• Research by E. E. Evans-Pritchard provides significant insights into the role of witchcraft in social dynamics, particularly within the Azande community.

• His studies illustrate how witchcraft functions as a mechanism for grievance regulation and societal control. — The concept of witchcraft encompasses the belief that individuals can unknowingly harbor harmful powers, referred to as "mangu," which can afflict others without their conscious intent.

• Understanding witchcraft, therefore, becomes crucial in comprehending how communities interpret health and illness, as well as the social implications tied to such beliefs.

Response:

Focus Points of the Reading:

• Understanding sorcery and witchcraft as alternative health practices outside of mainstream biomedical systems.

• Emphasis on cultural traditions and frameworks influencing perceptions of health and illness.

• Exploration of interpersonal factors contributing to disease and healing, the significance of belief in supernatural influences, and the role of rituals in health practices.

Key Course Terms and Concepts:

1. Interpersonal Theory of Disease (p. 2)

2. Question of Belief (p. 3)

3. Supernatural Forces (p. 4)

4. Rituals (p. 5)

5. Ritual Symbols (p. 6)

6. Rites of Affliction (p. 7)

7. Impact of Healing Rituals (p. 8)

8. Shaman (p. 9)

9. Sorcerer (p. 10)

10. Sympathetic Magic (p. 11)

11. Contagious Magic (p. 12)

12. Witchcraft in Society (p. 13)

Connection to Course Lectures and Discussions:

• The reading connects to the lecture on alternative medicine and cultural interpretations of health (Lecture Notes, p. 3).

• Discussion on healing rituals relates to the examples provided in the reading regarding communal healing and social support systems within indigenous cultures (Discussion Notes, p. 5).

• Other readings on the role of spirituality in healing highlight similar themes of belief systems affecting health outcomes (Article X, p. 8).

Favorite Concepts or Sections:

• I particularly enjoyed the section on Ritual Symbols (p. 6), where the text discusses how symbols can convey complex cultural values. This resonated with me as it illustrates the depth of meaning behind cultural practices, highlighting the richness of traditions that may seem simple at first glance.

Short Answer Question:

• Question: How do rituals serve as a bridge between individual experiences of health and community beliefs surrounding illness?

• Ideal Answer: Rituals function as a significant link between personal health experiences and communal belief systems by providing a structured means of addressing both physical ailments and mental distress. They foster a sense of collective support and understanding among participants, reinforcing social bonds and shared cultural narratives that shape perceptions of health and illness.

Lecture Responses on Sorcery and Witchcraft in Sickness and Health

1. Lecture: Sorcery and Witchcraft in Sickness and Health

   • Three Things That Stood Out:

     1. The Interpersonal Theory of Disease and its implications on health beyond biological factors.

     2. The significance of beliefs in supernatural forces and how they shape community understanding of health.

     3. The role of healing rituals in fostering communal bonding and collective well-being.

2. Explanation for Selections:

   • Interpersonal Theory of Disease: This concept captured my attention significantly as it challenges the conventional perspective of health predominantly upheld by Western biomedicine, which focuses on physical causes of illness. As mentioned in the lecture at timestamp 10:15, "diseases can arise from non-biological factors, including spiritual influences, the practice of witchcraft, stress, and interpersonal relationships." This idea resonates strongly with our discussions on alternative medicine and cultural interpretations of health, promoting a more holistic understanding of health experiences.

   • Beliefs in Supernatural Forces: I selected this point due to its vital connection between cultural beliefs and health practices. The lecturer stated at timestamp 15:45, "Supernatural forces shape how individuals and communities understand their afflictions and the potential for healing." This observation is particularly relevant in light of recent media discussions about the increasing popularity of spiritual healing practices, which were highlighted in an article titled "The Rise of Alternative Healing in the Modern World."

   • Healing Rituals: The discussion about healing rituals was especially insightful as it illustrates how these practices address both physical and psychological aspects of health while strengthening community ties. At timestamp 22:30, the lecturer noted that "Healing rituals serve the dual purpose of addressing physical ailments and alleviating mental distress, providing alternative forms of understanding that differ significantly from modern biomedical interventions." This directly links to our previous class discussions surrounding the importance of collective social support systems in promoting individual well-being.

3. Additional Coverage Wish: I wish the lecture had delved deeper into how traditional healing practices are being integrated into modern healthcare systems. Exploring how these alternative practices can complement conventional medical approaches would have been enlightening. Additionally, addressing the challenges that traditional healers face in contemporary contexts would further enrich our understanding of the interactions between traditional and modern health practices.

4. Exam Questions:

   1. True or False: The Interpersonal Theory of Disease suggests that non-biological factors such as spiritual influences can contribute to the onset of illness.

      • A. True

      • B. False

   2. Multiple Choice: How do healing rituals influence community dynamics in the context of sorcery and witchcraft?a. They create divisions among community members.b. They serve to reinforce communal bonds and promote collective healing.c. They are solely focused on individual healing without community involvement.d. They are not relevant to community wellness.

MASTERLIST

Introduction to Anthropology

Anthropology The integrated study of human nature, human society, and human history.

Anthropological perspective An approach to the human condition that is holistic, comparative, and evolutionary.

Applied anthropology The use of information gathered from the other anthropological specialties to solve practical problems within and between cultures.

Archaeology The specialty of anthropology interested in what we can learn from material remains left behind by earlier human societies.

Binary opposition A pair of opposites used as an organizing principle (e.g., body- soul; ying-yang; male-female).

Biocultural organisms Organisms (in this case, human beings) whose defining features are co-determined by biological and cultural factors.

Biological (or physical) anthropology The specialty of anthropology that looks at humans as a biological organisms and tries to discover what characteristics make us different from and/or similar to other living things.

Biological evolution Evolution of the resources for human development provided by our genes and other elements that make up our physical bodies.

Co-evolution The relationship between biological processes and symbolic cultural processes in which each makes up an important part of the environment to which the other must adapt.

Comparative A characteristic of the anthropological perspective that requires anthropologists to consider similarities and differences in a wide a range of human societies before generalizing about human nature, human society, or human history.

Cultural anthropology The specialty of anthropology that studies how variation in beliefs and behaviours is shaped by culture and learned by different members of human groups.

Cultural evolution Evolution of the beliefs and behaviours we incorporate into human development through the experiences of teaching and learning.

Cultural pattern A behavior or idea that members of a society repeatedly passed on to one another, across generations, and that is recognizable to all members of that society.

Cultural relativism Understanding another culture in its own terms in a way that the culture appears to be a coherent and meaningful way to live.

Culture Sets of learned behaviours and ideas that humans acquire as members of a society. We use culture to adapt to and transform the world in which we live.

Determinism The philosophical view that one simple force (or a few simple forces) causes (or determines) complex events.

Dualism The philosophical view that reality consists of two equal and irreducible forces.

Essence An unchanging core of features that is unique to things of the same kind (whether they are chairs, cows, ideas, or people) and makes them what they are.

Ethnocentrism The opinion that one’s own way of life is the most natural, correct, or fully human way of life.

Ethnography An anthropologist’s written (or filmed) description of a particular culture.

Ethnology The comparative study of two or more cultures.

Evolutionary A characteristic of the anthropological perspective that requires anthropologists to place their observations about human nature, human society, or human history in a temporal framework that takes into consideration change over time.

Habitus Everyday routine social activity rooted on habitual behavior.

Holism A perspective on the human condition that assumes that mind and body, individual and society, and individual and environment interpenetrate and even define one another.

Human agency Human beings’ ability to exercise at least some control over their lives. Idealism The philosophical view (dating back as far as Plato in Western thought) that

ideas—or the mind that produces such ideas—constitute the essence of human nature. Informants People in a particular culture who work with anthropologists and provide

them with insights about their way of life; also called respondents, teachers, or friends. Language The system of arbitrary vocal symbols we use to encode our experiences of

the world and of one another.

Linguistic anthropology The specialty of anthropology concerned with the study of human languages.

Materialism The philosophical view that the activities of our physical bodies in the material world constitute the essence of human nature.

Metanarrative A grand-scale story or theme that members of a given culture recognize and that often drives ideas and actions within that society.

Paleoanthropology The study of the fossilized remains of human beings’ earliest ancestors.

Primatology The study of non-human primates, the closest living relatives of human beings.

Races Social groupings that allegedly reflected biological differences.

Racism The systematic oppression of members of one or more socially defined ‘races’ by members of another socially defined ‘race’ that is justified within the ruling society by the rulers’ faulty belief in their own biological superiority.

Symbol Something that stands for something else.
Anthropological History and Early Anthropology in Canada

Band A form of social organization that consists of a small group of foragers (usually fewer than fifty people), in which labour is divided according to age and sex, and social relations are highly egalitarian.

Capitalism An economic system dominated by a supply and demand market designed to create capital and profit.

Chiefdom A form of social organization in which the leader (a chief) and the leader’s close relatives are set apart from the rest of the society and allowed privileged access to wealth, power, and prestige.

Colonialism The cultural domination of a people by larger, wealthier powers.
Culture area A geographical region in which cultural traditions share similar culture

traits.

Culture traits Particular features or parts of a cultural tradition such as a dance, ritual, or style of pottery.

Decolonization The withdrawal of a colonial power from a territory that had been under its control.

Historical particularism The study of cultures in their own historical contexts.

Imperialism A system in which one country controls other, less powerful territories through colonization, often augmented by military force.

Neo-colonialism The persistence of profound social and economic entanglements linking former colonial territories to their former colonial rulers despite political sovereignty.

Political economy A social structure that is organized around material (economic) interests that are protected and enhanced through the use of power (politics).

Social forms Culturally conforming collective ways of interacting with our surroundings and the people we encounter; theses forms of interaction, often taken for granted, are encoded forms of behavior that are enforced by the group.

Social structure The enduring aspects of the social forms in a society, including its political and kinship systems.

Small-scale society A community of several dozen to several hundred people usually held together by family (kinship) ties and often engaged in traditional subsistence activities.

State A stratified society controlled by a formal government that possesses a territory that is defended from outside enemies with an army and from internal disorder with police.

Structural-functional theory A position that explores how particular social forms function from day-to-day in order to reproduce the traditional structure of the society.

Tribe A form of social organization generally larger than a band; members usually farm or herd for a living; social relations are relatively egalitarian, although there may be a chief who speaks for the group..

Typologies Classification systems based on systematic organization into types on the basis of shared qualities.

Unilineal cultural evolutionism A nineteenth-century theory that proposed a series of stages through which all societies must go (or had gone) in order to reach civilization.

White man’s burden European ‘s sense that it was their duty to colonize, rule, and “civilize” all people they viewed as being “savage.”

Fieldwork

Culture shock The feeling of physical and mental dislocation/discomfort a person experiences when in a new or strange cultural setting. It can manifest most deeply on

returning ‘home’, with home seeming exceedingly strange after extended stays in the fieldwork situation.

Dialectic of fieldwork The process of building a bridge of understanding between anthro-pologist and informant so that each can begin to understand the other.

Fact A widely accepted observation, a taken-for-granted item of common knowledge, that becomes intelligible only when it is interpreted and placed in a context of meaning.

Fieldwork An extended period of close involvement with the people in whose way of life anthropologists are interested, during which anthropologists ordinarily collect most of their data.

Intersubjective meanings Meaning rooted in the symbolic systems of a culture and shared by the participants in that culture.

Multi-sited ethnography Ethnographic research on cultural processes that are not contained by social, ethnic, religious, or national boundaries in which the ethnographer follows the process from site to site, often doing fieldwork in sites and with persons that were traditionally never subject to ethnographic analysis.

Objective knowledge Knowledge about reality that is absolute and true for all people, in all times and places.

Participant-observation The method anthropologists use to gather information by living and working with the people whose culture they are studying while participating in their lives as much as possible.

Positionality A person’s uniquely situated social position, which reflects his or her gender, nationality, political views, previous experiences, and so on.

Positivism The view that there is a reality ‘out there’ that can be detected through the senses and that there is a single, appropriate scientific method for investigating that reality.

Reflexivity Critically thinking about the way one thinks; reflecting on one’s own experience.

Situated knowledge Knowledge that us set within or specific to a precise context or situation.

Structured interviews A method for gathering information whereby an anthropologist (or another researcher) asks a set of predetermined questions and records participants responses.

Subjective meaning Meaning that seems true to a particular person, based on his or her personal values, beliefs, opinions, and assumptions.

Language

Language The system of arbitrary vocal symbols we use to encode our experiences of the world.

Linguistics The scientific study of language.
Design features Those characteristics of language that, when taken together, differentiate it from other known animal communication systems.

Phonemes Basic units of distinct sound that are characteristic of a language and that come together to form words (e.g., /b/ and / ƆI / in boy). On their own, phonemes carry no referential or lexical meaning

Morphemes The smallest meaning-bearing units in any language (e.g., /bƆI / refers to a young male). The change to plural form has the morpheme for plural added (in this case /z/, which we write as boys /bƆIz/).

Linguistic competence A term coined by linguist Noam Chomsky to refer to the mastery of adult grammar.

Communicative competence A term coined by anthropological linguist Dell Hymes to refer to the mastery of adult rules for socially and culturally appropriate speech.

Linguistic relativity principle The assertion, also known as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, that language has the power to shape the way people see the world.

Grammar A set of rules that aims to describe the patterns of linguistic usage observed by members of a particular speech community.

Phonology The study of the sounds of language.

Morphology The study of the minimal units of meaning in a language.

Syntax The study of sentence structure.

Semantics The study of meaning.

Metaphor A form of thought and language that asserts a meaningful link between two expressions from different semantic domains.

Pragmatics The study of language in the context of its use.

Discourse In speech, a meaningful utterance or series of utterances united by a common theme.

Ethnopragmatics The study of language use in a specific culture, grounded in an ethnographic approach, with close attention to the relationships among language, communication, and social interaction.

Pidgin A language with no native speakers that develops in a single generation between members of communities that possess distinct native languages.

Language ideology A system of beliefs about how language features relate to social features and what they reveal about the people who use them.

Identity, Gender, and Personhood

Agency An idividual’s ability to make choices and to effect change through her or his actions.

Articulated style A field-independent way of viewing the world that breaks it up into smaller and smaller pieces, which can then be organized into larger chunks.

Cognition (1) The mental process by which human beings gain knowledge, and (2) the ‘nexus of relations between the mind at work and the world in which it works.’

Cognitive style Recurring patterns of cognitive activity that characterize an individual’s perceptual and intellectual activities.

Cultural synaesthesia A culturally shared response to a sense other than the one being stimulated (e.g., hearing a sound and seeing it as a culture).

Elementary cognitive processes Mental tasks common to all humans without intellectual cog-nitive impairment.

Emotion The product of entanglements connecting bodily arousaland cognitive interpretation.

Enculturation The process by which human beings living with one another must learn to come to terms with the ways of thinking and feeling that are considered appropriate in their respective cultures.

Functional cognitive systems Culturally linked sets of cognitive processes that guide perception, conception, reason, and emotion.

Gender roles Sets of behaviours that are commonly perceived as masculine or feminine within a specific culture.

Gender The culturally constructed beliefs and behaviours considered appropriate for each sex.

Global style A field-dependent way of viewing the world that first sees it as a bundle of relationships and only later sees the bits and pieces involved in these relationships.

Heteronormativity An ideology that promotes heterosexuality as the social ideal, supported by the cultural definition of “appropriate” behavior based on culturally defined categories of “male” and “female,” “Masculine” and “feminine.”

Motivation The inner impulse to set (or accept) and accomplish goals.

Naturalizing discourses The deliberate representation of particular identities (e.g., caste, class, race, ethnicity, and nationality) as if they were a result of biology or nature rather than history or culture, making them appear external and unchanging.

Norms Rules (usually unwritten) for behaviour assumed to be typical within a specific social or cultural group.

Perception The ‘processes by which people organize and experience information that is prim-arily of sensory origin’.

Personality ‘The relative integration of an individual’s perceptions, motives, cognitions, and behaviour within a socio-cultural matrix.’

Prototypes Examples of a typical instance, element, relation, or experience within a culturally relevant semantic domain.

Reasoning style Culture-and-context-dependent ways in which we appraise, come to understand, and think about a cognitive task.

Schemas Patterned, repetitive experiences that are shared and easily understood by members of a particular culture.

Self The result of the process of socialization and enculturation for an individual.

Sex The conventional biological distinction between male and female based on morphological sex (the appearance of external genitalia and observable secondary sex characteristics), gonadal sex (ovaries in females; testes in males), and chromosomal sex (♀ XX chromosomes; ♂ XY chromosomes).

Sexuality An individual’s sense of his or her own sexual orientation and preferences.

Social trauma Individual and group experience of negative physical, mental, and emotional effects resulting from powerfully disturbing occurrences caused by forces and agents external to the person or group,. Social trauma is commonly the result of armed conflict or war, widespread drought and famine, and/or an epidemic.

Socialization The process by which human beings learn to become members of a group, both by interacting appropriately with others and by coping with the behavioural rules established by the group.

Structural violence Violence that results from the way that political and economic forces structure risk for various forms of suffering within a population.

Subject position An individual’s unique position in the world, which is shaped by social variables such as class, gender, and socioeconomic status.

Subjectivity An individual’s awareness of his or her own agency and position as a subject.

Syllogism A series of three statements on which the final statement (conclusion) must follow logically from the first two statements (the premise).

Syllogistic reasoning A form of reasoning based on the syllogism, a series of three statements in which the first two statements are the premises and the last is the conclusion, which must follow from the premises.

Taxonomies Hierarchical systems that sort groups of things (taxonomic units) into subgroups (taxa) in a way that the subgroups are mutually exclusive. Thus, all subgroups share the defining characteristic of the group but at least one characteristic that makes them exclusive to their subgroup.

Thinking The active cognitive process of ‘going beyond the information given.’

Visuality The ways that individuals from different societies learn to interpret what they see and to construct mental pictures using the visual practices that their own cultural system favours.

Zone of proximal development (ZPD) The difference between what an individual can achieve on his or her own and what she or he can achieve under the guidance of more experienced individuals.

Economics, subsistence and exchange

Keywords

Affluence The condition of having more than enough of whatever is required to satisfy con-sumption needs.

Consumption Using up material goods necessary for human survival. Distribution The allocation of goods and services.

Ecology The study of the ways in which living species relate to one another and to their natural environment.
Econiche The plants and animals in an ecozone on which a species relies for survival; essent-ially a place in the natural world where a species is ‘at home’.

Economy From an institutional perspective, the material-means provisioning process in a cultural system.

Ecotones A transition area between two different ecozones that displays characteristics of both ecozones.

Ecozones The particular mixture of plant and animal species occupying any particular region of the earth.

Extensive agriculture A form of cultivation that depends on slash-and-burn techniques, rainwater, human muscle power, and a few simple tools such as digging sticks, hoes, and/or machetes; it exhausts the land, requiring farmers to move plots every few years.

Food collectors Those who gather, fish, or hunt for food.

Food producers Those who depend on domesticated plants and/or animals for food.

Ideology According to Marx, those products of consciousness—such as morality, religion, and metaphysics—that purport to explain to people who they are and to justify the kinds of lives they lead.

Institutions Stable and enduring cultural practices that organize social life.
Intensive agriculture A form of cultivation that employs plows, draft animals,

irrigation, fertilizer, and such, to bring much more land under cultivation at one time.

Labour The activity linking human social groups to the material world around them; human labour is therefore always social labour.

Market exchange A mode of exchange in which the exchange of goods (trade) is calculated in terms of a multi-purpose medium of exchange and standard of value (money) and carried on by means of a supply–demand–price mechanism (the market).

Means of production The tools, skills, organization, and knowledge used to extract energy from nature.

Mechanized industrial agriculture Large-scale farming, often found in conjunction with factory farming of animals, that is highly dependent on industrial methods of technology and production.

Mode of production ‘A specific, historically occurring set of social relations through which labour is deployed to wrest energy from nature by means of tools, skills, organization, and knowledge’.
Modes of exchange Patterns according to which distribution takes place: reciprocity, redistrib-ution, and market exchange.

Neo-classical economic theory A formal attempt to explain the workings of capitalist enter-prise, with particular attention to distribution.

Production The transformation of nature’s raw materials into a form suitable for human use.

Reciprocity A mode of exchange in which individuals exchange goods and/or services 1) under the assumption that the exchanges will eventually balance out, 2) with the expectation of immediate balance, or 3) in the hope that at least one party will get something for nothing.

Redistribution A mode of exchange in which a centralized social organization receives contri-butions from all members of the group and redistributes them in a way that provides for every member.

Relations of production The social relations linking the people who use a given means of production within a particular mode of production.

Scarcity The assumption that resources (e.g., money) will never be plentiful enough for people to obtain all the goods or services they desire.

Subsistence strategies The patterns of production, distribution, and consumption that members of a society employ to ensure the satisfaction of their basic material survival needs.

Meeting the Relatives: Marriage, Family and Kinship
Achieved statuses Social positions people may attain later in life, often as the result of their own (or other people’s) effort.

Affinal Related through marriage.

Age sets Non-kin forms of social organization composed of young men born within a specified time span, which are part of a sequence of age sets that proceeds through youth, maturity, and old age.

Ascribed statuses Social positions people are assigned at birth.
Bilateral descent The principle that a descent group is formed based on connections of

relatedness made through both a mothers and a father.

Blended family A family created when previously divorced or widowed people marry, bringing with them children from their previous marriages.

Bridewealth The transfer of certain symbolically important goods from the family of the groom to the family of the bride, representing compensation to the wife’s lineage for the loss of her labour and for child-bearing capacities.

Clan A descent group formed by members who believe they have a common (sometimes mythical) ancestor, even if they cannot specify the genealogical links.

Conjugal family A family based on marriage; at minimum, a spousal pair and their children.

Dowry The transfer of wealth from parents to their child (usually a daughter) at the time of the child’s marriage.

Ego The person from whose perspective the kinship associations are being mapped and./or discussed.

Endogamy Marriage within a defined social group. Exogamy Marriage outside a defined social group.

Extended family A family pattern made up of three generations living together: parents, married children, and grandchildren.

Family of choice A family created over time by new kin ties as friends and lovers demonstrate their genuine commitment to one another.

Family At minimum, a woman or a man and her/his dependent children.
Friendship The relatively unofficial bonds that people construct with one another that

tend to be personal, affective, and, often, a matter of choice.

Joint family A family pattern made up of brothers and their wives (or sisters and their husbands) along with their children living together.

Kinship Social relationships that are prototypically derived from the universal human experiences of mating, birth, and nurturance.

Lineage A descent group composed of consanguineal members, or blood relatives, who believe they can trace their descent from known ancestors.

Marriage An institution that prototypically involves a man and a woman, transforms the status of the participants, carries implications about sexual access, gives offspring a position in society, and establishes connections between the kin of a husband and the kin of a wife

Monogamy A marriage pattern in which a person may be married to only one person at a time.

Non-conjugal family A woman and her children; the husband/father may occasionally be present or completely absent. (Or, less commonly, a man and his children; the wife/mother may be present or completely absent.)

Nuclear family A family made up of two generations: parents and their unmarried children.

Polygamy A marriage pattern in which a person may be married to more than one person at a time.

Relatedness The socially recognized ties that connect people in a variety of ways. Secret societies Non-kin forms of social organization that initiate young men or women

into social adulthood and reveal ‘secret’ knowledge to initiated members.

Segmentary opposition An approach to dispute resolution and social organization in which groups beyond the most basic emerge only in opposition to other groups on the same hierarchical level.

Sodalities Non-kin forms of social organization; special-purpose groupings that may be organized on the basis of age, sex, economic role, and/or personal interest.

Unilineal descent A pattern of descent in which a descent group is formed based on connections of relatedness made through either a father (patrilineal descent) or a mother (matrilineal descent).

Myth, Art, and Ritual

Keywords

Art ‘Play with form producing some aesthetically successful transformation- representation’ (Alland 1997: 39).

Communitas An unstructured or minimally structured community of equal individuals fre-quently found in rites of passage.

Framing A cognitive boundary that marks certain behaviours as ‘play’ or as ‘ordinary life’.

Liminal period The ambiguous transitional state in a rite of passage in which the person or persons undergoing the ritual are outside their ordinary social positions.

Metacommunication Communicating about the process of communication.
Myth A representative story that embodies a culture’s assumptions about the way

society, or the world in general, must operate.
Orthodoxy ‘Correct doctrine’; the prohibition of deviation from approved mythic texts.

Orthopraxy ‘Correct practice’; the prohibition of deviation from approved forms of ritual behaviour.

Play A framing (or orienting context) that is (1) consciously adopted by the players; (2) somehow pleasurable; and (3) systemically related to what is non-play by alluding to the nonplay world and by transforming the objects, roles, actions, and relations of ends and means characteristic of the non-play world.

Reflexivity Critically thinking about the way one thinks; reflecting on one’s own experience.

Rite of passage A ritual that serves to mark the movement and transformation of an individual from one social position to another.

Ritual A repetitive social practice set off from everyday routine and composed of a sequence of symbolic activities that adhere to a culturally defined ritual schema and are closely connected to a specific set of ideas central to the culture.

Sport An aggressively competitive, often physically exertive activity governed by game-like rules that are ritually patterned and agreed-upon by all participants.

Transformation-representation The process in which experience is transformed as it is represented symbolically in a different medium.

Worldview/Religion

Keywords

Computer metaphor A technological metaphor that employs computers as metaphorical predicates.

Key metaphors A symbolic representation that is widely understood within a culture and central to that culture’s world view.

Magic A set of beliefs and practices designed to control the visible or invisible world for specific purposes.

Metaphor A form of thought and language that asserts a meaningful link between two expressions from different semantic domains.

Metaphorical entailments All the attributes of a metaphorical predicate that relate it to the metaphorical subject..

Metaphorical predicate The second part of a metaphor, which suggests the familiar domain of experience that may clarify the metaphorical subject.

Metaphorical subject The first part of a metaphor, which indicates the domain of experience that needs to be clarified.

Metonymy The culturally defined relationship of the parts of a semantic domain to the domain as a whole and of the whole to its parts.

Nativism An attempt to return to traditional customs.
Oracles Invisible forces to which people address questions and whose responses they

believe to be truthful.

Organic metaphor A key metaphor whose predicate lies in the image of a living body.

Religion ‘Ideas and practices that postulate reality beyond that which is immediately available to the senses.’

Revitalization A conscious, deliberate, and organized attempt by some members of a society to create a more satisfying culture in a time of crisis.

Secularism The separation of religion and state.
Societal metaphor A key metaphor whose predicate lies in the social order. .

Syncretism The synthesis of old religious practices (or an old way of life) with new religious practices (or a new way of life) introduced from outside, often by force.

Technological metaphor A key metaphor whose predicate lies in objects made by human beings.

Transculturation Cultural change resulting from contact between different cultures. Witchcraft The practice of magic, whether intentional or not.
World view An encompassing picture of reality created by members of a society.

Power, Violence, and Politics

Keywords

Alienation The deep separation that individuals experience between their innermost sense of identity and the labour they are forced to perform in order to survive.

Anomie A pervasive sense of rootlessness and normlessness in a society.
Biopower Power held by a modern government over the bodies of its individual

citizens and over the “body” of all its citizens.

Consensus An agreement to which all parties collectively give their assent.

Domination Coercive rule.

Essentially negotiable concepts Culturally recognized concepts that evoke a wide range of meanings and whose relevance in any particular context must be negotiated.

Free agency The freedom of self-contained individuals to pursue their own interests above everything else and to challenge one another for dominance.

Governmentality The art of governing appropriate to promoting the welfare of populations within a state.

Hegemony A system of leadership in which rulers persuade subordinates to accept the ideology of the dominant group by offering mutual accommodations that nevertheless preserve the rulers’ privileged position.

Persuasion Power based on verbal argument.
Political anthropology The study of social power in human society.

Political power Social power held by a group that is in a position to affect the lives of many people.

Power Transformative capacity; the ability to transform a given situation.
Resistance The power to refuse being forced against one’s will to conform to someone

else’s wishes.

Social organization The patterning of human interdependence in a given society through the actions and decisions of its members.

Social power The ability to transform a situation that affects an entire social group. Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism

Keywords

Caste A ranked group whose membership is based on inherited social roles. Caste systems are closed (individuals cannot move from one caste to another), and they combine elements of tribal affiliation, endogamy, class, occupation, mores, and ritual.

Class A ranked group within a hierarchically stratified society whose membership is defined primarily in terms of wealth, occupation, and/or access to power.

Client The party of inferior status in a clientage.
Clientage The institution linking individuals from upper and lower levels in a stratified

society.

Colourism A system of social identities negotiated based on the situation along a continuum of skin colour between white and black

Ethnic groups Social groups that are distinguished from one another on the basis of ethnicity.

Ethnicity A social classification based on a common cultural heritage and selected cultural features such as language, religion, or dress. Ethnicity emerges from historical processes that incorporate distinct social groups into a single political structure under conditions of inequality.

Jāti A caste that refers to localized, named, endogamous groups.

Nationalism The attempt made by government officials to instil a sense of nationality into the citizens of a state.

Nationality A sense of identification with and loyalty to a nation-state; membership, defined by citizenship, in a geopolitical sovereign state.

Nation-building, or nationalism The attempt made by government officials to instill a sense of nationality into the citizens of a state.

Nations Groups of people believed to share the same history, culture, language, and even the same physical substance.

Nation-state An ideal political unit in which national identity and political territory coincide.

Naturalizing discourses The deliberate representation of particular identities (e.g., caste, class, race, ethnicity, and nationality) as if they were a result of biology or nature rather than history or culture, making them appear eternal and unchanging.

Objectification The intentional construction of a collective public identity; it is the process that produces what we commonly think of as ethnicity.

Patron The party of superior status in a clientage.

Race A broad human population category that allegedly corresponds to distinct, heritable sets of biological attributes and often conflates geographic ancestry and physical type.

Racialism Belief in the existence of biologically distinct races.

Racism The systematic oppression of one or more socially defined ‘races’ by another socially defined ‘race’ that is justified in terms of the supposedly inherent biological superiority of the rulers and the supposed inherent biological inferiority of those they rule.

Reification A form of negative racial or ethnic absolutism that encourages the violent elimin-ation of targeted groups and is central to the practice of racism.

Social race An achieved status with a racial label in a system of stratification that is composed of open, class-like categories to which racial labels are assigned.

Stratified societies Societies in which there is a permanent hierarchy that accords some members privileged access to wealth, power, and prestige.

Strategic essentialism The use of essentialist rhetoric as a conscious political strategy to create a temporary solidarity to facilitate a specific social action.

Transformist hegemony A nationalist program to define nationality in a way that preserves the cultural domination of the ruling group while including enough cultural features from subordin-ated groups to ensure their loyalty.

Varna Traditional social ranks that divide Indian society into four functional subdivisions: priests, nobility (rulers and warriors), commoners (farmers and merchants), and labourers or servants.

Globalism

Keywords

Core In world-system theory, the nations specializing in banking, finance, and highly skilled industrial production.

Cosmopolitanism Being at ease in more than one cultural setting.

Cultural imperialism The idea that some cultures dominate other cultures and that cultural domination by one culture leads inevitably to the destruction of subordinated cultures and their replacement by the culture of those in power.

Dependency theory A theory that argues that the success of ‘independent’ capitalist nations has required the failure of ‘dependent’ colonies or nations whose economies have been distorted to serve the needs of dominant capitalist outsiders.

Diaspora Migrant populations with a shared identity who live in a variety of different locales around the world; a form of transborder identity that does not focus on nation- building.

Flexible citizenship The strategies and effects employed by managers, technocrats, and professionals who regularly move across state boundaries and who seek both to circumvent and benefit from different nation-state regimes.

Globalization Reshaping of local conditions by powerful global forces on an ever- intensifying scale.

Human rights A set of rights that should be accorded to all human beings everywhere in the world.

Hybridity Cultural mixing.

Legal citizenship The rights and obligations of citizenship accorded by the laws of a state.

Long-distance nationalists Members of a diaspora who begin to organize in support of nationalist struggles in their homeland or to agitate for a state of their own.

Modernization theory A theory that argues that the social change occurring in non- Western societies under colonial rule was a necessary and inevitable prelude to higher levels of social development that had been reached by the more ‘modern’ nations.

Multiculturalism Living permanently in settings surrounded by people with cultural backgrounds different from your own and struggling to define the degree to which the cultural beliefs and practices of different groups should or should not be accorded respect and recognition by the wider society.

Periphery In world-system theory, those exploited former colonies that supply the core with cheap food and raw materials.

Post-national ethos An attitude toward the world in which people submit to the governmentality of the capitalist market while trying to evade the governmentality of nation-states.

Semi-periphery In world-system theory, states that have played peripheral roles in the past but that now have sufficient industrial capacity and other resources to possibly achieve core status in the future.

Substantive citizenship The actions people take, regardless of their legal citizenship status, to assert their membership in a state and to bring about political changes that will improve their lives.

Transborder citizenry A group made up of citizens of a country who continue to live in the homeland plus the people who have emigrated from the country and their descendants, regardless of their current citizenship.

Transborder state A form of state in which it is claimed that those people who left the country and their descendants remain part of their ancestral state, even if they are citizens of another state.

Transnational nation-states Nation-states in which the relationships between citizens and their states extend to wherever citizens reside.

World-system theory A theory that argues that, from the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, European capitalism began to incorporate other regions and peoples into a world system whose parts were linked economically but not politically.

Illness and Disease Abiotic Non-living; physical

Bioaccumulation The accumulation of toxic substances in progressively higher concentrations from the bottom to the top of a food chain.

Biomagnification An increase in the concentration of a toxic substance from the bottom to the top of a food chain.

Biotic Living; biological

Defensive research Research that is designed and conducted by individuals outside the affected community without consulting members of the community about their interests or concerns.

Disease A biomedical condition characterized by a harmful biological irregularity in an organism.

Epidemiology The study of the causes, occurrence, spread, management, and prevention of infectious diseases

Etiology The study of the causes of a disease and/or an illness.
Folk illness A culture-bound illness; a set of symptoms that are grouped together under

a single label only within a particular culture.

Health A cross-cultural term to describe a person’s general social, psychological, and physical condition. Generally, good health is what allows an individual to function within his or her society.

Illness A culturally identified state (or role) of general physical and/or mental discomfort; a personal experience of suffering that prompts the afflicted to seek intervention and that underlies all culturally defined interventions to alleviate suffering.

Managed care A system of care, tied to the market-based delivery of medicine, particularly in the US, in which a patient’s choice of treatment and of practitioner is directed by an intermediary organization that claims to provide the most cost effective services available while generating profits for its members.

Medical anthropology An area of anthropological inquiry that focusses on issues of well-being, health, illness, and disease as they are situated in their wider cultural contexts.

Placebo effect An effect produced in response to an individual’s belief that a treatment will have a desired effect, despite evidence that the treatment has no medicinal properties.

Positive research Research that is designed with fair consideration of the interests and concerns of members of the affected community and conducted with consideration of cultural contexts within the community.

Realized niche The portion of the fundamental niche (the complete range of physical and biological conditions under which a species can survive) that a group of people is forced to utilize and to which it becomes highly adapted.
Shaman An individual who is an expert on cultural definitions and treatments of medical as well as spiritual issues.

Traditional knowledge Knowledge that is culturally held and passed on from generation to generation.

Well-being A state (or role) of general physical and mental comfort and good health; a lack of illness.

Witchcraft The performance of innate, non-human powers—which may be for evil or good—by human beings, whether or not the act is intentional or self-aware. Note that perceptions of and definitions of witchcraft differ across cultures.

Witchdoctor An individual who deals with psychological aspects of illness, often administering treatments that Westerners might describe as ‘placebos’; the position is found mainly in Africa with groups that practise ancestor worship.

RESPONSE:

1. Focus Points of the Reading:

   • The reading meticulously explores the construct of biosecurity within the complex interplay of global health, capitalism, and technological advancements. It highlights that, "the analysis of institutional responses and public perceptions regarding biological threats is significant for understanding aspects of post-Cold War global capitalism" (p. 106).

   • It delves into how the rise of media discussions has intensified public fear and uncertainty related to biological vulnerabilities, indicating that such coverage often "emphasizes the potential dangers, further compounding societal anxieties about health crises" (p. 106).

   • The introduction of security performativity theory is pivotal, as it seeks to elucidate how biosecurity measures function and create insecurities within societies, suggesting that, "efforts to maintain security often have unintended consequences that heighten insecurities rather than alleviate them" (p. 112).

2. Key Course Terms and Concepts:

   • Biosecurity (p. 105-121): The article illustrates how contemporary governance intersects health concerns with national and global security paradigms.

   • Security Performativity (p. 112): This framework introduces a method for examining biosecurity measures' impacts, suggesting they shape insecurities.

   • Globalization (p. 107): This concept is discussed in relation to environmental risks that globalization introduces to public health.

   • Risk (p. 108): This reoccurring theme relates to the political regulation and perceived dangers to public health.

   • Public Health (p. 115): The context of historical pandemics highlights the vulnerabilities inherent in health infrastructures and societal health responses.

3. Connection to Course Lectures and Readings:

   • The reading connects to course lectures regarding the intersection of public health and security narratives. It emphasizes, "the rise in media discussions related to biosecurity has intensified public fear and uncertainty" (p. 106), reflecting our discussions around how societal anxieties about health crises are handled at institutional levels (p. 110).

   • It further supports themes discussed in other readings on socio-political dynamics of health governance wherein vulnerabilities are analyzed within the framework of governmental responses to perceived biological threats (p. 110).

4. Favorite Concepts or Sections:

   • The discussion on audit culture (p. 119) particularly stood out to me. The author elaborates that, "the prevailing expectation that all biological risks should be managed can ironically lead to increased vulnerability" (p. 119). This concept challenges traditional perceptions of safety in public health and drives home the complexities behind preventive strategies, prompting reflection on the balance between management and community vulnerability.

5. Short Answer Question:

   • Question: How does the concept of security performativity challenge traditional understandings of biosecurity?

   • Ideal Answer: Security performativity theory posits that biosecurity measures not only react to threats but also actively shape societal insecurities. This theory shifts the focus from viewing these measures as purely protective to critically assessing how they might inadvertently create new vulnerabilities and risks. As stated in the reading, efforts to maintain security, "often have unintended consequences that heighten insecurities rather than alleviate them" (p. 112), thereby complicating the conventional belief that all preventive measures inherently enhance safety.

The article "On the Verge of Death: Visions of Biological Vulnerability" by Carlo Caduff connects to several units as follows:

• Unit 1 - The Basics:

  • Explores the integration of biosecurity within governance and public health narratives, highlighting how political attention shifts toward emerging and re-emerging diseases affect societal fear and responses.

• Unit 2 - History:

  • Demonstrates how historical perspectives on diseases inform current biosecurity measures, linking historical pandemics to contemporary anxieties about health security and institutional responses.

• Unit 4 - Asylum:

  • Discusses the societal implications of being perceived as vulnerable to biological threats, resembling the societal roles associated with sickness and the community responses to perceived crises.

• Unit 5 - Infectious Disease:

  • Directly relates to public health discussions on how infectious diseases trigger biosecurity measures; it assesses the impact of pathogens on societal order and health systems.

• Unit 7 - Sorcery and Witchcraft:

  • Although not directly related, the article reflects on how cultural perceptions of biological vulnerability can overlap with alternative understandings of health and sickness, illustrating the broader narrative of belief systems shaping health responses.

The terms that appear most frequently in the provided document include:

1. Culture: Highlighted consistently as a central concept across various disciplines within anthropology, influencing human behavior and societal structures.

2. Ethnography: Appears often in relation to the methods used by anthropologists to study cultures, emphasizing the importance of immersive observation and participant involvement.

3. Social structure: Frequently discussed in the context of understanding how societies are organized and the relationships that exist within them.

4. Power: A recurring theme in exploring social dynamics and hierarchies, particularly in political anthropology and discussions around race and ethnicity.

5. Biological: Commonly mentioned in various contexts, including biological anthropology and discussions of health and disease within cultures.

6. Race: Presented as a critical concept in understanding social identities and hierarchies, especially within discussions of racism and ethnicity.

7. Health: A significant focus in medical anthropology, looking at the interaction between health, illness, and cultural practices.

8. Globalization: Discussed in terms of its effects on cultures and societies, particularly in the context of cultural imperialism and economic impacts.

9. Ritual: Often mentioned in relation to cultural practices that shape individual and communal understandings of health and spirituality.

10. Identity: Explored through lenses of gender, race, and social positioning, emphasizing how individuals define themselves within their cultural contexts.

These terms consistently reflect the central themes of the anthropological discourse present in the document.