An Anthropologist Looks at Ballet as a Form of Ethnic Dance

Communication Gaps in Dance Scholarship

• The Anthropological Perspective on Ballet: It is considered good anthropology to view ballet as a form of "ethnic dance." However, this perspective is currently unacceptable to the majority of Western dance scholars.
• Communication Breakdown: The lack of agreement between scholars of dance and anthropologists indicates a significant gap in the communication of ideas. This paper aims to bridge that gap.
• Anthropologists' Shortcomings: While anthropologists have made many errors in approaching dance, these are largely due to a hesitation to engage with a subject that seems esoteric or outside their field of competence.
• Efforts toward Rectification: A small number of dance anthropologists are working to correct these issues by publishing in social science journals and participating in formal and informal anthropological meetings.

Terminology and Ethnocentric Bias

• Anthropological Definition of "Ethnic Dance": Anthropologists use this term to convey that all dance forms reflect the specific cultural traditions within which they developed.
• Scholarly Misuse of Terms: Dance scholars often use terms like "ethnic," "ethnologic," "primitive," and "folk" dance in ways that reveal a limited understanding of non-Western dance forms.
• The Rereading Project: Joann Kealiinohomoku performed an intense rereading of key works by scholars including DeMille, Haskell, Holt, the Kinneys, Kirstein, La Meri, Martin, Sachs, Sorell, and Terry. She also reviewed dance definitions in Webster’s New International Dictionary (2nd edition definitions by Humphrey and 3rd edition by Kurath).
• Findings from Literature Review:     * The literature is filled with unsubstantiated deductive reasoning and poorly documented "proofs."     * There is a prevalence of half-truths, direct errors, and a pervasive ethnocentric bias.     * Writers who champion non-Western dance often adopt an apologetic or patronizing tone.     * Books reissued as many as $17$ years later often only updated photos and Euro-American dance sections while leaving outdated texts on other cultures unchanged.

Contradictory Theories on Dance Origins

• Divergence of Opinion: Existing literature presents many conflicting claims regarding the origin of dance, including:     * Dance originated in play vs. it did not originate in play.     * It served magical/religious purposes vs. it did not.     * It was for courtship vs. it was not.     * It was the first form of communication vs. communication only entered dance once it became an "art."     * It was serious and purposeful vs. it was a spontaneous outgrowth of exuberance/fun.     * It was a group activity for tribal solidarity vs. a tool for individual self-expression.     * Animals danced before humans vs. dance is strictly a human activity.
• Anthropological Stance on Origins: Anthropologists generally avoid unknown origins because no living person was present during the dawn of dance.
• Misuse of Archeology and Models:     * Cave paintings and statuary do not represent the beginning of dance as humans existed long before such artifacts.     * Scholars frequently confuse the terms "primitive" and "primeval." While nothing is known about primeval dance, a great deal is known about primitive dance.

The Myth of the "Primitive" Dance

• Diversity vs. Monolith: There is no such thing as a singular "primitive dance." Groups and their dances are not monolithic.     * "The African dance" is a fiction; there are specific Dahomean, Hausa, and Masai dances.     * "The American Indian dance" is a fiction; there are specific Iroquois, Kwakiutl, and Hopi dances.
• Critique of Stereotypes (Sorell): Sorell claims primitive dancers lack technique and artistry yet are "unfailing masters of their bodies." He describes their dances as disorganized/frenzied yet capable of translating all feelings into movement. He asserts they have "complete freedom" but cannot dance together except in "orgies."
• Critique of Stereotypes (Kirstein): Kirstein characterizes "natural, unfettered societies" as focusing movement on the lower half of the torso. He labels primitive dance as repetitious, limited, unconscious, and possessing "retardative and closed expression," while simultaneously calling it "instinctive exuberance."
• Critique of Stereotypes (Terry): Terry uses American Indians as a model but separates his own "white man's dance heritage" from them, viewing his heritage as "wholly different" except for ancient history.
• The Frozen Tradition Myth: There is a common double myth that non-Western dance grew from "spontaneous mob action" and then became "frozen" or unchanging. Anthropologists emphasize that all dances involve creators, change, and development.

Case Study: Hopi Indian Dance

• Misidentification: Martin and DeMille use the Hopis as examples of primitive dancers. Kealiinohomoku contrasts their descriptions with reality:     * Organization: Hopi dances are immaculately organized and never frenzied (including the Snake Dance).     * Emotion: There is no desire to translate feelings/emotions into movement.     * Humor: Many dances are not "serious" but involve clowns, derision, and satire.     * Social Context: Hopis have only one genre of "social" dance (uninitiated members only).     * Structure: Behavior is rigidly prescribed; they do not have "complete freedom," nor do they engage in orgies or roll in mud.     * Logic: Hopis distinguish between the concrete and symbolic. Their dance prayers for rain are no less logical than European farmers praying to a Judeo-Christian God.     * Occasions: Hopis do not dance for the supposedly "universal" life events of birth, marriage, or death.     * Stamping/Exaltation: Hopi stamping does not "make the earth tremble," nor is there a state of "ecstasy."     * Gender: Most dances are performed by males, but females have specific rituals and are essential non-dancer participants in the "dance event."     * Roles: There are no shamans or witch doctors dancing in those specific roles; everyone participates based on clan and residence.
• Innovation: In five village "Bean Dances" observed in $1965$ and $1968$, Kealiinohomoku noted predictable village styles plus unpredictable creative innovations. The Hopis know exactly who made these changes and evaluate them aesthetically.

Defining Dance Cross-Culturally

• Definitions vs. Descriptions: Most writers provide descriptions rather than inclusive/exclusive definitions.
• Kealiinohomoku’s Definition ($1965$, revised $1970$): "Dance is a transient mode of expression, performed in a given form and style by the human body moving in space. Dance occurs through purposefully selected and controlled rhythmic movements; the resulting phenomenon is recognized as dance both by the performer and the observing members of a given group."
• Crucial Distinctions:     1. Dance is limited to human behavior (intentional/purposeful).     2. Dance requires intent and group acknowledgment (distinguishing it from sports or ritual).
• The Problem of "Tension": Kirstein claims the idea of "tension" is inherent to dance words. However, Japanese and Mandarin Chinese words for dance do not involve the concept of tension. Tension (pull-up, body lift) is a Western aesthetic value, not a universal one.

Anthropological Distinctions: Primitive vs. Folk

• Primitive Society: An autonomous, self-contained system with its own customs. Usually economically independent and nonliterate (never had a written language).
• Folk (Peasant) Society: Not autonomous. Exists in a symbiotic relationship with a larger "Great Tradition." Often involves high rates of illiteracy (unable to read an existing written language).
• Ethnic Dance: In anthropology, "ethnic" refers to a group sharing genetic, linguistic, and cultural ties. Therefore, every dance form is an ethnic form.

The Ethnicity of Ballet

• Defining Ballet’s Ethnicity: Ballet is a product of the Western world, developed by Caucasians speaking Indo-European languages and sharing a common European tradition.
• Cultural Indicators in Ballet:     * Performance Conventions: The proscenium stage, three-part programs (lasting about $2$ hours), the star system, curtain calls, applause, and French terminology.     * Social Customs: Stylized enactments of chivalry, courting, weddings, christenings, burials, and mourning.     * World View: Themes of unrequited love, sorcery, self-sacrifice, mistaken identity, and tragic misunderstandings.     * Religion: Pre-Christian customs (Walpurgisnacht), Biblical themes, Christian holidays (Christmas), and beliefs in life after death.     * Stock Characters: Fairies, witches, gnomes, royalty, peasants, and beautiful pure young women.     * Aesthetics: Long lines, total revealing of legs, small heads/tiny feet for women, slender bodies, and the "airy" quality of lifts. (Note: Public male-female thigh contact is shocking in some other cultures).     * Flora and Fauna: Esteemed animals include horses and swans (not pigs, sharks, or buffalo). Suitable plants include grains, roses, and lilies (not taro, yams, or squash blossoms).     * Economics: Reflects occupations like spinners, foresters, soldiers, and sailors (not pottery makers or llama herders).
• The Euphemism Problem: Western scholars resist calling ballet "ethnic" because they use the word as a euphemism for "pagan," "savage," or "exotic." They created a false dichotomy between "ethnic" (low culture) and "ethnologic" (high culture) that is meaningless to anthropologists.

Questions & Discussion

• Question on Collective Art: John Martin claimed that in "simpler cultures," art is a collective product of the "people as a whole."
• Kealiinohomoku's Response: She questions how a refined aesthetic expression can be a collective product without individual artists. She argues that even if a culture does not record the names of innovators, individuals still create and innovate within the tradition; it is not a unanimous surge that remains frozen forever.
• Question on Universal Forms: Discussion of Wisnoe Wardhana’s attempt to develop a universal dance form in Java and Terry’s claim of ballet as an international form.
• Response: Kealiinohomoku argues that no truly universal or international form exists in practice; ballet becomes an "alien" borrowed form when performed in places like Japan or Korea, even though it is international within the scope of European tradition.