Assertion of human rights for pregnant workers, emphasizing that women are human too.
Call for equality in rights related to sex and compensation.
Mention of discrimination in grading and pay, highlighting the challenges faced by women in the workforce.
Historical Context
Why Now?
The movement built off the momentum from civil rights and anti-war movements.
Influential figures and events:
Kennedy administration's policies and initiatives.
Publication of Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" in 1963, which stirred dissatisfaction regarding women's roles and rights leading to significant social discourse.
General anger and dissatisfaction over the inadequate enforcement of the Equal Pay Act, propelling the movement forward.
Birth Control and Women's Reproductive Rights
Comstock Laws (1873): Established restrictions on contraception and information about birth control.
Margaret Sanger: Coined the term 'birth control' and was a significant figure advocating for reproductive rights.
Oral Contraceptive Introduction:
1956-57: First oral contraceptives (the pill) introduced to the public.
1960: FDA approval explicitly for use as birth control.
Key Supreme Court Cases:
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): Affirmed the right of married couples to use contraceptives.
Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972): Extended the right to unmarried individuals, establishing the principle of reproductive rights across gender.
No-Fault Divorce
Definition: No-fault divorce does not require any party to demonstrate wrongdoing or a breach of marital contract.
Comparison to Fault Divorce:
Common grounds include adultery, abandonment, long-term incarceration, or cruelty.
California (1969): The first state to adopt no-fault divorce laws, impacting divorce practices across the nation.
Economic Rights Legislation
Equal Pay Act (1963): Aims to abolish wage disparity based on sex.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act (1964): Prohibits employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.
Title IX (1972): Prohibits sex-based discrimination in federally funded education programs or activities.
Equal Credit Opportunity Act (1974): Ensures equal access to credit without discrimination based on sex or marital status.
Pregnancy Discrimination Act (1978): Prohibits discrimination on the basis of pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions.
Educational Trends in Female Participation
Graph Analysis - Representation over Time:
Fraction of female graduates in various fields:
Medicine
Law
Dentistry
M.B.A.
Data shows the progression from 1960 to 2000 illustrating shifts in female enrollment in these professional schools.
Source: Goldin and Katz (2002).
Labor Force Participation Rates of Women by Age (1950-2015, Projected to 2024)
Graph illustrating labor force participation rates across different age groups:
16-24 Years
25-54 Years
55+ Years
Projection Data: Shows the anticipated participation for 16-24, 25-54, and 55+ age groups, highlighting changing trends.
Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
Section 1: "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."
Campaign History:
Significant anti-ERA campaign in the 1970s led by Phyllis Schlafly.
ERA passed by the House in 1971 and by the Senate in 1972.
Deadline for states to ratify was set for 1982.
Recent Ratifications:
Nevada in 2017.
Illinois in 2018.
Virginia in 2020 (was the 38th state to ratify).
National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC)
Founded: 1971 by notable figures such as Shirley Chisholm, Gloria Steinem, Bella Abzug, Fannie Lou Hamer, and Betty Friedan.
Mission: Dedicated to recruiting, training, and supporting women seeking political office, thereby promoting increased political representation of women.