Moral Development

Show understanding of the meaning of moral development.
Demonstrate knowledge of Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s methods and theories.
Critically evaluate these theories in the light of recent research.
Demonstrate understanding of recent research on infants’ and young children’s morality.

Morality: Pertains to others’ welfare, rights, fairness, and justice.
Moral Development refers to the growth of various aspects:
- Moral Knowledge: Understanding what is right.
- Moral Understanding: Grasping why something is right.
- Moral Emotions: Feelings such as guilt, shame, gratitude, anger, and empathy.
- Moral Behaviour: The act of doing what is right.
Research emphasis has transitioned from mainly moral reasoning and justification to include moral intuitions (referenced research includes Greene, 2007; Haidt, 2012).

Inquiry regarding the origin of rules, responses:
- “My Daddy” or “God”.
Perception of rules’ alterability:
- “No, it would be wrong. They wouldn’t be real.”

A cognitive developmental (Piagetian) theory which focuses on moral reasoning including understanding and justifications.
Proposes an invariant sequence comprising 6 stages:
- Sequence progresses as 1 → 2 → 3, etc.
- No alternative pathway such as 1 → 3 → 2.
- Each stage represents a more adequate/sophisticated understanding than the last.

Characteristics: Found in children below 10 years and adult offenders.
Perspective: Individual focus; similar to heteronomy;
Emphasis on outcomes for self and obedience to authority.
Example Scenario: Joe (7 years old) replying to, "Why shouldn't you steal from a store?"
- Response: “It’s not good to steal from the store. It’s against the law. Someone could see you and call the police.”

Characteristics: Societal perspective; typical among adolescents and adults.
Internalization of societal norms, rules, and conventions.
Example Scenario: Joe (17 years old) responding to, "Why shouldn't you steal from a store?"
- Response: “It’s a matter of law. It’s one of our rules that we’re trying to help protect everyone.”

Characteristics: Prior to society perspective; achieved by a small minority of adults.
Focus on individuals’ rights and abstract, universal principles.

Diagram illustrating the relationship between intention, negligence, and outcome:
- Intention → Negligence → Outcome

Acceptance varies based on intent, negligence, and outcomes. Diagram elements are provided for various groups showing differing perspectives on the continuum of positive to negative implications across age groups.

Main Domains of Social Rules:
- Morals: Concern welfare (theft, injury, sharing).
- Conventions: Regulate social order (clothing, eating, games).
Domains differ by:
- Origin
- Alterability
- Relativity
- Rule & authority contingencies.
Children can distinguish these domains and demonstrate a moral-conventional distinction (MCD).

Research indicates that most 3-year-olds can recognize:
- Morals are absolute.
- Conventions are relative and alterable.
- It can sometimes be right to break rules and disobey authority.
Example: Young children assert that a teacher’s immoral demand should be disobeyed (referenced: Damon, 1977; Kim & Turiel, 1996; Laupa, 1995).
Our understanding challenges Piaget and Kohlberg, showing that children’s moral reasoning is more sophisticated than these theories suggest.

Ages and Understanding:
- 4 years: Respond similarly to adults regarding the side-effect effect (Pellizzoni et al., 2010) and utilize intention in moral judgments (Margoni & Surian, 2020; Nobes et al., 2009, 2016).
- 3 years: Protest when another’s property is taken (Rossano et al., 2011) and react like adults to trolley dilemmas (Pellizzoni et al., 2009).
- 2 years: Exhibit protest against unfair game rules (Rakoczy & Tomasello, 2009) and engage in collaborative helping (Ulber & Tomasello, 2020).

21 months: Infants reward good behavior and punish bad (Hamlin et al., 2011).
16 months: Help others even without reward (Warneken & Tomasello, 2008, 2013, 2015).
8 months: Prefer individuals who are well-intentioned regardless of consequences (Hamlin, 2013; Margoni & Surian, 2018).
6 months: Show favorable reactions to helpful characters and aversion to unhelpful ones (Hamlin et al., 2007).
3 months: Display aversion to antisocial actors with no attraction to prosocial actors (Hamlin et al., 2010).
5 days: Infants look longer at prosocial (helping) than antisocial (hindering) events (Geraci et al., 2025).

Piaget’s Theory: Young children primarily base moral judgments on outcomes and struggle with understanding social rules; moral development transitions from heteronomy to autonomy.
Kohlberg’s Theory: Expands upon Piaget's ideas, applicable to adolescents and adults; defines three levels and six stages of moral development - pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional.

Criticisms of Piaget and Kohlberg: Evidence suggests most children do not fit into heteronomous or pre-conventional boxes, understanding social rules that separate morals from conventions. Children exhibit significant capabilities in moral reasoning, demonstrating intent rather than solely outcome, and their preference for fairness and prosocial behavior emerges even in infancy.