Sex, Gender and Sexuality

Chapter 4: Sex, Gender and Sexuality

Chapter Overview

  • Cover topics including:

    • Gender Development

    • Human Sexuality

    • Sexual Orientation

    • An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality

    • Sex and Human Relationships

    • Reflections on the Nature and Nurture of Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

Concept of Sex and Gender

  • Definition of Sex: In psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics that define male, female, and intersex.

  • Definition of Intersex: In psychology, individuals possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth.

  • Definition of Gender: In psychology, the behavioral characteristics associated with boy, girl, man, and woman, or neither or both.

  • Note on gender identity - an individual's internal understanding and recognition of their gender.

Gender Development

Chromosomal Basis of Gender

  • Every human receives 46 chromosomes:

    • 23 from the mother

    • 23 from the father

  • 22 Pairs (44 chromosomes): These are the same for everyone, carrying traits like height, eye color, or blood type.

  • 23rd pair: Sex chromosomes influencing biological sex:

    • XX typically denotes female.

    • XY typically denotes male.

    • Intersex individuals may have atypical combinations like XXY (Klinefelter Syndrome) or XO (Turner Syndrome).

Prenatal Sexual Development

  • X Chromosome: Present in both males and females.

  • Y Chromosome: Present only in males.

    • XX → Female

    • XY → Male

  • At seven weeks post-conception, the Y chromosome gene triggers the development of testes producing testosterone (androgens).

  • During the fourth and fifth months, fetal brain patterns are influenced by sex hormones supporting either female or male development.

Adolescent Sexual Development

  • Puberty: The sexual maturation phase when reproduction capability is achieved. Triggered by hormone surges around:

    • ~Age 10 in girls

    • ~Age 12 in boys

  • Physical changes observed during puberty:

    • Girls: Budding breasts, wider hips

    • Boys: Growth of testes, facial hair, deeper voice

  • Primary sex characteristics: Reproductive organs, external genitalia.

  • Secondary sex characteristics: Include body hair, breast development, voice change, muscle growth.

Puberty Landmarks

  • Spermarche: First ejaculation (~age 14, typically during sleep).

  • Menarche: First menstrual period (~age 12.5).

  • Factors influencing timing of puberty:

    • Genes and environment;

    • Stress factors (poverty, family conflict, father absence);

    • Childhood trauma or sexual abuse;

    • Higher body fat and hormone-mimicking chemicals;

    • Secure attachment and supportive environments can buffer against these effects.

  • Notable trend: Girls today reach puberty earlier than past generations.

Physical Growth Assessment in Adolescents

  • After age 14, boys typically become taller than girls due to ongoing growth spurts.

  • Graph portrayal of heights (190 cm for boys, earlier growth spurt for girls).

Body Changes in Puberty

  • Females: Underarm hair growth, breast development, uterus enlargement, beginning of menstruation, pubic hair growth.

  • Males: Facial and underarm hair growth, testes develop, growth of penis, beginning of ejaculation.

Gender as a Social Construction

  • Gender: Socially-constructed understanding and expression along masculinity, femininity, both, or neither, distinct from sex assigned at birth.

  • Gender Identity: Internal sense of being male, female, both, neither, or somewhere in between.

  • Gender Role: Set of expected behaviors for men and women.

  • Gender Role Attitudes: Beliefs about what men and women should do and how they should behave, shifting across cultures and eras.

Aggression and Gender Differences

  • Definitions:

    • Aggression: Any act intended to physically or emotionally harm someone.

    • Minor aggression is about equal among genders.

    • Extreme physical violence is more common among men than women.

    • Relational Aggression: More likely found in women, aimed at harming someone's social standing.

Evolution of Gender Roles

  • Considering historical progression:

    • Increase in women’s rights (voting, military service, divorce, driving).

    • Higher participation of women in STEM roles in the U.S. workforce.

    • Shifting cultural expectations surrounding gender roles and norms pertaining to aggression and harassment.

Gender and Power Dynamics

  • Current statistics showing:

    • ~75% of tenured faculty in higher education are men.

    • ~71% of the U.S. House and ~75% of the U.S. Senate are men.

    • ~90% of Fortune 500 CEOs are men; 100% of U.S. Presidents have been men.

  • Despite advancements, men dominate leadership across political, academic, and corporate spheres in the U.S.

Gender Roles and Social Power

  • 2020 UN survey found:

    • Nearly half believe men are superior political leaders.

    • Over 40% believe men are better business executives.

  • Workplace Gender Bias: Discrimination based on gender that is conscious or unconscious.

  • Factors include the pay gap and family-care responsibilities leading to a motherhood penalty.

Subtle Gender Bias in STEM Fields

  • Study by Moss-Racusin et al. (2012) revealed bias where identical résumés (one male, one female) were rated differently by faculty, with men receiving more favorable evaluations on competence and salary.

  • This bias indicates implicit bias in the perception of competence, irrespective of overt sexism.

Stereotype Threat

  • Occurs when fear of confirming negative stereotypes leads to anxiety and lowered performance.

  • Study by Spencer et al. (1998) showed women's performance worsened under stereotype activation compared to a neutral condition.

Nurturing Gender Development

Learning Gender

  • Social Learning Theory: Proposes learning social behavior through observation, imitation, and consequences (reward or punishment).

  • Gender Typing: Acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine roles.

  • Androgyny: The blending of masculine and feminine psychological traits.

Formation of Gender Schemas

  • Early life schemas assist individuals in organizing experiences of male-female characteristics.

  • Children observe gender expression through language, attire, toys, literature, media, and play.

Definitions of Gender Identity

  • Gender Identity: A personal understanding of being male, female, both, neither, or a combination thereof.

  • Binary and Non-Binary Identifications:

    • Cisgender: Gender identity aligns with birth-designated sex.

    • Transgender: Gender identity differs from birth-assigned sex.

    • Gender Dysphoria: Distress emerges from conflicting birth-assigned sex and gender identity.

Transgender Population

  • Transgender individuals might seek alignment between external appearance and internal gender identity to decrease depression and low self-esteem.

  • The estimated global population is around 25 million, with about 30% identifying as non-binary.

Societal Perception of Transgender Individuals

  • Often perceived inaccurately as mentally ill or confused.

  • Face experiences of harassment and discrimination in various regions.

  • Being transgender does not equate to having a psychological disorder.

Human Sexuality

Biopsychosocial Perspective of Sexuality

  • Sexuality is a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors.

  • Dating and mating are prioritized during puberty; some individuals, like asexual persons, differ.

  • Sex Hormonal Influence: Sex hormones dictate sexual behavior and development, influencing interest from adolescence through later life.

Hormonal Changes Through the Lifespan

  • Hormonal surges during puberty impact the development of secondary sexual characteristics as well as sexual interest.

  • Hormone levels decline with advancing age affecting sexual behavior.

Sexual Dysfunctions

  • Conditions that impede sexual functioning or arousal include:

    • Erectile Disorder: Difficulty maintaining an erection due to inadequate blood flow.

    • Premature Ejaculation: Achieving climax prematurely.

    • Female Orgasmic Disorder: Distress from a lack of orgasms.

  • Both psychological and medical interventions can address these dysfunctions.

Paraphilias

  • Defined as sexual arousal from nonhuman objects, self-harm, harm to others, or non-consenting persons.

  • Primarily affecting men, these are considered disordered if they cause distress or harm.

  • Examples include necrophilia, exhibitionism, and pedophilia.

STIs/STDs

  • Acknowledge infections transferable through sexual contact, notably:

    • Chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes simplex virus (HSV), human papillomavirus (HPV).

    • HPV particularly associated with oral sex; higher risk in sexually active youth.

AIDS and Related Care

  • AIDS: Result of HIV infection diminishing immunity and vulnerability to diseases.

  • Use of condoms can mitigate STI spread, but provide limited protection against skin-to-skin infections.

Influences on Sexuality

  • Biological Influences: Age of sexual maturity, sex hormone impact, especially testosterone.

  • Psychological Influences: Exposure to sexually stimulating conditions, including fantasies.

  • Social-Cultural Influences: Values from family/society, religious beliefs, and media expectations.

Effects of Sexually Explicit Material

  • Exposure can alter perceptions regarding rape and sexual violence, lowering satisfaction in relationships and desensitization to typical sexual behaviors.

Sexual Risk-Taking Behaviors

  • Sexual attitudes and behaviors differ across cultures; factors contributing to risk-taking in youth:

    • Limited dialogue on contraception

    • Alcohol consumption

    • Influence of mass media on social behavior expectations.

Gaming and Hypersexualization

  • Analysis of popular video games highlights hypersexualization of female characters, potentially leading to unrealistic sexual expectations and early sexualization of young girls.

Characteristics of Teens Delaying Sex

  • Notable positive traits include:

    • High intelligence

    • Religious commitment

    • Presence of fathers

    • Comprehensive sex education

    • Participation in service learning.

Sexual Orientation

Definitions

  • Sexual Orientation: The direction of an individual's sexual attractions.

    • Types include:

    • Heterosexual

    • Same-sex

    • Bisexual

    • Asexual

    • Pansexual

Cultural Attitudes and Prevalence

  • Heterosexuality remains the predominant orientation, but same-sex attraction exists and is increasingly accepted globally.

  • Reported same-sex attraction: 3% to 4% among men and 2% among women in Europe and the U.S.; 17% of women and 6% of men report some same-sex interactions.

Reasons for Concealing Sexual Orientation

  • Influences can include:

    • Hoping attractions diminish

    • Living in hostile environments

    • Fear of rejection or violence

  • Efforts to change orientation are largely ineffective and deemed unethical, with conversion practices banned in many areas.

Misconceptions about LGBTQ+ Parents

  • Studies show no propensity for gay/lesbian parents to produce non-typical gender behavior in children; behavior is largely according to societal norms.

Genetic Influences on Sexual Orientation

  • Evidence supporting a genetic link includes:

    • Familial patterns of same-sex orientation.

    • Genetic associations noted on chromosomes 13 and 14, particularly in identical twins.

Prenatal Influences on Sexual Orientation

  • Exposure to specific hormone levels during critical developmental periods is implicated in later sexual attraction; biological older-brother effect demonstrates maternal immune responses influencing fetal brain development.

Societal Perceptions and Stances on Equal Rights

  • Understanding the inborn nature of sexual orientation correlates with advocacy for equal rights, while viewing it as a lifestyle choice often incites opposition toward LGBTQ+ rights.

Discrimination and Mental Health Across the LGBTQ+ Spectrum

  • Findings showcase extensive harassment faced by LGBTQ+ students leading to higher incidences of depression and absenteeism in schools.

  • Supportive environments reduce victimization; inequities persist in workplaces, with LGBTQ+ individuals facing callbacks discrimination and pay disparities.

  • In healthcare, significant discrimination against LGBTQ+ patients affects their well-being and willingness to seek care, impacting mental health and increasing anxiety and risks associated with minority stress.