Using Evidence Effectively

Using Evidence Effectively

Introduction to Evidence in Argument

  • Definition of Evidence: All verifiable information used to support an argument, including:
    • Facts
    • Observations
    • Examples
    • Cases
    • Testimonies
    • Experimental findings
    • Survey data
    • Statistics
  • Connection to Toulmin's framework: Evidence is part of the grounds or backing of an argument supporting reasons or warrants.
  • Aim of Chapter: To explain how to use evidence effectively in arguments, focusing on:
    • General principles for persuasive evidence use
    • Types of evidence available
    • Rhetorical understanding of evidence
    • Strategies for gathering evidence

The Persuasive Use of Evidence

  • Consideration of Target Audience:
    • Educated, reasonable, cautious readers approaching issues with skepticism.
  • Expectation of Evidence: This audience demands:
    • Sufficiency
    • Typicality
    • Accuracy
    • Relevance

STAR Criteria for Evidence

  • Sufficiency: Assess how much evidence is needed based on the rhetorical context.

    • In contested claims, more evidence is required to avoid being accused of hasty generalization.
    • Example of strong vs. qualified claim regarding working full-time and grades.
    • Strong Claim: “Working full-time seriously harms a student’s grade point average.” (Requires substantial evidence)
    • Qualified Claim: “Working full-time often harms a student’s grade point average.” (Might only require a few examples)

  • Typicality: The evidence must be representative, not extreme.

    • Example of a non-representative case (Pam's success as a night receptionist) may not serve as a generalizable example.

  • Accuracy: The evidence must be accurate and up-to-date to maintain credibility.

    • Trust in a writer’s accuracy affects the audience's perception of the writer’s ethos (credibility and trustworthiness).

  • Relevance: Evidence must be pertinent to the claim being made.

    • Example: A student's claim for an A based on effort must align with grading criteria focused on performance quality, not effort level.

Enhancing Evidence Persuasiveness

  • Use Sources Trusted by the Reader:
    • Importance of selecting data from reputable sources.
    • Audience perception of the source can impact the argument’s credibility.
    • Differences in persuasiveness when citing diverse sources (scholarly journals vs. advocacy sites).

Kinds of Evidence in Arguments

  • Various types of evidence include:

    • Data from Personal Experience

    • Personal anecdotes can powerfully connect with readers, but may be seen as insufficient for general claims.

    • Data from Observation or Field Research

    • Evidence gleaned from personal observation or field research.

    • Example of observing pedestrian behavior at a dangerous intersection:

      • Observation led to data collection on pedestrian safety.
      • Provides credibility and typicality- enhancing evidence, though skeptics may challenge the methods.

    • Data from Interviews, Questionnaires, Surveys

    • Provides quantitative and qualitative data through direct inquiry.

    • Example: A survey about classroom distractions due to laptops provided relevant evidence.

    • Data from Library or Internet Research

    • Significant for building arguments via existing research literature.

    • Testimony:

    • Relevant when direct data is lacking or too complex; can lend authority if the source is respected.

    • Statistical Data:

    • Heavy reliance on statistical evidence in contemporary arguments.

    • Example: Marriage rates decline over decades from Census data highlights societal shifts.

    • Hypothetical Examples:

    • Illustrate potential consequences or test philosophical hypotheses.

    • Reasoned Sequences of Ideas:

    • Sometimes depend on logical connection of ideas rather than empirical evidence. Example of biotech soy scenario.

Angle of Vision in Evidence Selection and Framing

  • Importance of understanding writers’ rhetorical choices when selecting and framing evidence.
  • Personal biases (angle of vision) shape what data are focused on or ignored:
    • Angle of Vision: Concept reflecting a writer's perspective, influenced by values and beliefs.
    • The importance of considering how different angles can affect the presentation and reception of evidence.

Strategies for Framing Evidence

  • Control of evidence space: Choose how much space to allocate to supporting vs. contrary evidence.
  • Detailed narrative vs. multiple facts: A vivid story can have strong persuasion compared to presenting aggregates of data.
  • Contextual comments on data: Add context that emphasizes a specific interpretation of evidence.
  • Subordinate positioning of contrary evidence: Place opposing data in less significant positions in writing.
  • Careful wording and labels: Labeling can significantly influence how evidence is perceived by the audience.
  • Use of visuals: Photographic evidence can frame perspectives.
  • Valuation disclosure: Making values explicit helps frame context.

Ethical Use of Numbers in Arguments

  • Avoid manipulating data by ethically framing statistics:
    • Different representations (raw numbers vs. percentages, median vs. mean) can alter the argument's perception significantly.

Gathering Evidence for Arguments

  • Practicalities in gathering evidence include:
    • Personal experiences
    • Observations
    • Expert interviews
    • Questionnaires and surveys for diverse perspectives.

Conclusion

  • Effective evidence usage is paramount in argument writing, encompassing the STAR criteria, understanding types of evidence, rhetorical framing, and gathering data responsibly.

Writing Assignment Recommendations

  • Options for practice: Microthemes or supporting-reason arguments using varied evidence sources.