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PAPER 2 Causes and Effects of 20th Century Wars

I. Causes of War:

1. WWI:

Long Term:

  • Economic:

    • The Industrial Revolution transformed economic power, enabling countries to increase production of coal, iron, and steel.
    • Economic growth led to increased military technology and mobilization capabilities, including railways.

  • Imperialism:

    • The Balkans were a point of contention between Austria-Hungary and Russia, escalating tensions.
    • The Moroccan Crises saw France take control of Morocco, which humiliated Germany.
    • Imperialism increased the likelihood of war through rivalries and heightened nationalism.

  • Alliance Systems:

    • The Triple Entente contributed to the war by creating insecurity within Germany.

  • Militarism:

    • Increased investment in standing armies and new military technologies from the mid-1890s to the 1900s, driven by the glorification of military strength.
    • Germany's actions were motivated by anxieties about rivals becoming too powerful during the arms race.

  • Military Plans:

    • Germany’s Schlieffen Plan aimed to quickly defeat northern France before turning attention to Russia before it fully mobilized.

  • Nationalism:

    • Governments and the press promoted patriotism, and national pride was increased by military and economic strength.
Short Term:

  • Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand:

    • Serbian Nationalism fueled the assassination by a member of the Black Hand, trained by the Serbian government, who was anti-Austrian.

  • Attempts at Diplomacy:

    • Austria-Hungary sent a list of demands to Serbia, which Serbia rejected.
    • Germany's opposition to diplomacy hindered peace efforts.

2. CCW (Chinese Civil War):

Long Term:

  • Socioeconomic conditions in China 1900-37:

    • 85% of the population were peasants lacking running water or electricity.
    • Peasants rented land from landlords without owning it themselves.
    • Urban workforce faced low wages, lack of social security, high unemployment, and slum conditions.

  • Political fragmentation in China 1912-27:

    • Nationalists launched the Northern Expedition to defeat warlords and negotiate.

  • Ideological Differences:

    • The Nationalist Party promoted popular sovereignty and welfare, appealing to the middle class.
    • The CCP wanted Marxist principles under Maoism, with the revolution stemming from the peasantry.

  • Nationalist Failings 1928-37:

    • Nationalists were authoritarian and held less central power due to negotiated terms with warlords.
    • Failed at establishing democracy and reducing peasant suffering.
    • Showed a weak response to the Japanese threat, trading space for time.
Short Term:
  • Second Sino-Japanese War 1937-45:
    • Nationalists failed militarily and politically. Citizens felt abandoned when the capital moved.
    • CCP increased strength in northern China.
    • After surrendering, both parties raced to fill the power vacuum, trying to capture territory and weapons.

II. Practices of War and their impact on the outcome:

1. Guerrilla/Civil Wars:

  • Cuban Revolution:
    • Castro’s anti-Batista revolution was motivated by resentment towards the USA, growing nationalism, and left-wing radicalism.
    • Launched surprise attacks on Batista’s forces, utilizing the forest to their advantage.
    • The guerrillas sabotaged sugarcane fields, the government's main source of income.
    • Castro’s guerrillas won support from the poor by paying for food and liberating areas by confiscating land from landowners.
    • Created infrastructure like schools, hospitals, and factories in liberated territories.
  • Chinese Civil War:
    • Mobile Defense: weakening the enemy through ambush and sabotage. This required small arms, which were a Communist strength since they lacked modern military technology.
    • Required knowledge of terrain and support from local population to have troops survive without returning to base camp.
    • CCP implementation of communist land reform policies and abolition of traditional customs created a strong peasant support base.
    • Small arms were required to allow for out-maneuvering of big groups of troops and surprise attacks.
    • Military Personal: Nationalist had a significant numerical advantage of militia compared to the CCP’s Red Army (3 million to 2 million), but mobile defense tactics were able to nullify numerical advantages.
    • Materiel: The majority of CCP weapons were captured armaments; therefore, they avoided conventional battles and relied on Guerrilla tactics to maintain supplies throughout the war.

2. Technological developments; theaters of war

  • WW1:
    • Land:
      • Machine Guns: Used for defensive purposes given lack of maneuverability.
      • Trench Warfare:
        • Preliminary artillery bombardment
        • Creeping barrage: Hard to synchronize artillery and infantry.
        • Mines: digging tunnels hazardous
        • Poison gas: Gas masks quickly developed.
        • Tanks: limited number or became stuck in ground.
      • Poison Gas: Infiltrated trenches, but impact was rarely decisive and limited due to gas masks and reliance on weather conditions.
      • Tanks: Armored military vehicle but slow, liable to break down, and stuck in mud. Tanks saw considerable development and fitted with machine guns.
    • Air:
      • Reconnaissance Aircraft: Flying behind enemy lines to gather information about troop movements.
      • Fighter Aircraft: Newest technological developments increasing speed and carrying powerful guns.
      • Zeppelins and Bomber Aircraft: Bombers limited in range, speed, and bomb load. Provided support for ground troops.
    • Sea:
      • Submarines: Target naval warships. German U-boats were effective in destroying merchant ships. The convoy system and depth charges were used to counteract it.
  • WW2 (Pacific):
    • Air power Over Sea power: Ships were vulnerable to attack by aircraft, and anti-aircraft guns were limited. Any hit would be devastating.
    • Aircraft Carriers: Most important ship as it could travel hundreds of kilometers and launch airships. Carriers had longer range capability and were protected by other warships.
    • Code breaking: JN-25 was understood by the US, which affected the outcome of the Battle of Midway. JN-40 was used by merchants but broken and severely damaged Japan’s supply movement. The USA used Navajo code, which was never broken.
    • Submarines: Japan’s submarines sank 2 carriers but never hindered the US navy. US submarines crippled Japan’s merchant fleet, so it couldn’t supply the country.
    • Island Hopping: US forces would capture specific islands, build airfields, and destroy supplies sent to fortified positions.
    • Radar: Possible to detect distant objects and their position and speed in any condition. Provided an early warning system crucial for the Battle of Midway.
    • Bombing Japan: B-29 could fly larger distances, and a campaign of incendiary attacks began in 1944. Killed 100k people in one evening.
    • Atomic Bomb: Manhattan Project developed the atomic bomb and used it to force Japan's unconditional surrender to save lives as the Japanese fought to the death.

3. Extent of Mobilization of human and economic resources:

  • WW2 (Europe): conscription, rearmament, alliances, women, and minorities
    • Lend-Lease program: A large number of merchant ships traveled between the USA and Britain across the Atlantic to supply the allies with much-needed war material.
    • War Production:
      • Germany didn’t fully mobilize its industry until 1943 and used a lot of resources on experimentation. Also, never fully integrated conquered territories into the German economy.
      • USA had the largest economy and infrastructure and manufacturing capability. USSR’s Five-Year plans reorganized the economy and had a lot of manpower and materials.
    • Women:
      • Germany resisted women in the industry but eventually had 37% of workers as women. Instead, they employed foreign workers.
      • Britain had 6.5 million women in the workforce but faced discrimination in pay. Women worked in non-combat military work in the air force, navy, and land army.
      • USSR had the greatest number of women employed and allowed women to serve in the armed forces.
      • USA saw 19 million women workers by 1945. 300k in the military serving in the Women’s Army Corps and Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service. They were able to earn money and independence.
  • Chinese Civil War
    • Mobile Defense: weakening the enemy through ambush and sabotage. This required small arms, which were a Communist strength since they lacked modern military technology.
    • Switch to Large Scale: After sustaining control of Manchuria, the CCP would shift to large-scale urban assault.
    • Military Personal: Nationalist had a significant numerical advantage of militia compared to the CCP’s Red Army (3 million to 2 million), but mobile defense tactics were able to nullify numerical advantages.
    • Conscription: Both sides conscripted men, but the Red Army successfully conscripted peasants and defections by promising good treatment and nutrition.
    • Materiel: The majority of CCP weapons were captured armaments; therefore, they avoided conventional battles and relied on Guerrilla tactics to maintain supplies throughout the war.
    • Civilian Support: CCP’s social reforms like land redistribution and the improvement of the standard of living were popular among peasants, but mainly labor taxes under Communism sustained the CCP campaign.

4. Foreign influence/involvement:

  • Korean War
    • ROK:
      • Americans aided in controlling the skies and the seas; six US tank battalions made a large difference.
      • Once ROK was pushed to the Pusan Perimeter, the UN/US forces would assist in maintaining the perimeter and prevent ROK from falling.
      • The amphibious assault on Inchon resulted in ROK success as they regained Seoul and pushed the North Koreans back.
      • Fifteen other nations sent troops; 90% of troops in South Korea were US/ROK forces.
    • North Korea:
      • Chinese moved 150,000 troops secretly into North Korea.
      • Chinese offensive with 300k troops and 100k North Koreans pushed back the UN/ROK forces back to the 38th parallel.
      • The Soviets provided support through materials and loans.
  • Spanish Civil War
    • Nationalists:
      • Germany would airlift the Army of Africa to aid the nationalist side, ferry troops, provide the Condor Legion (good for offensive), superior aircraft, and artillery.
      • Italy sent 10k troops and provided aircraft and tanks.
    • Republicans:
      • France: Initially agreed to provide aid but later backed out due to the German aggressive new policy through the Non-intervention act.
      • USSR: Top-grade aircraft, but the majority of supplies were smaller firearms and poor-quality guns.

III. Effects of War:

1. Success and Failures of Peacemaking:

  • WW2 (Europe): start of cold war
    • USA aims were free world trade, the creation of the UN, and alliance with the USSR and Britain.
    • USSR aims were a buffer zone to prevent future attacks, reparations from Germany, territorial gains, and pro-Soviet regimes in Eastern Europe.
    • Britain's aims were to preserve the British empire and an alliance with the USSR and the US.
    • Tehran Conference: The USSR successfully forced the US and the UK to recognize USSR claims in Poland and Baltic states and discuss the second front in France.
    • Yalta Conference: established Four Power Control in Germany, the establishment of the UN, USSR in Pacific, and easily manipulated elections for Poland.
    • Potsdam Conference: ACC in Germany and debates about reparations from their own zones. Poland couldn’t be influenced by the US/Britain.
    • Division of Germany:
      • USSR wanted influence in a reunified Germany and established the German Communist Party (KPD) violently.
      • US/Britain wanted a delay of reparations to the USSR for German economic recovery, and the Soviet responded by increasing reparations from East Germany.
      • British and US zones merged into Bizonia, and the USSR feared the formation of a separate, capitalist Germany.
      • The failure of the London Conference of Foreign Ministers allowed western German zones to create a democratic, federal West Germany with control over troops stationed and the industry of Ruhr.
      • Created Deutschmark in the West, and the USSR responded with Ostmark in the East and the Berlin Blockade.
      • The West would respond with the Berlin Airlift through previously granted airways, which was extremely successful.
      • Stalin was forced to concede and failed to stop the split of German states.
      • The establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in the West and German Democratic Republic (GDR) in the East and Berlin remained under four-power control.
  • Vietnam War (Nixon’s Paris Peace Accords)
    • After the Tet Offensive, the world media was convinced of US defeat.
    • Nixon failed to link ending the war in Vietnam to détente with the USSR as the USSR continued to send North supplies.
    • Nixon’s policy of Vietnamization hoped to have the South Vietnam’s government take over the war effort to achieve peace with honor.
    • Finally signed the Paris Peace Accords, which evacuated US troops from South Vietnam and gave a ceasefire to the war.
    • Elections were not held in Vietnam, and the Paris Peace Accords were not followed, as shortly after North Vietnam would successfully invade the South, and the US-trained South Vietnamese army wasn’t able to stop them.

2. Territorial Changes:

  • WW1
    • Post-war settlements significantly redrew territorial boundaries, which contributed to future instability in Europe.
    • Germany lost land and colonies were disassembled. However, new boundaries had displaced peoples, which contributed to the future instability of nationalist groups.
    • Disintegration of Austria-Hungary into two countries, and the majority of its territory was given to the Allies.
    • The creation of two new countries, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, were formed under the principle of self-determination of ethnic groups.
    • The Ottoman Empire completely dissolved into Turkey and lost significant territory.
  • WW2 (Pacific)
    • Korea: The UN divided the peninsula into a northern zone administered by the USSR and a southern zone administered by the USA.
    • Decolonization: The Atlantic Charter stated that all people had the right to self-determination.
    • Independence was declared for many countries, including the Philippines, Malaysia, Burma, Dutch East Indies as Indonesia, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
    • Some territories held by Japan or America are still not independent like American Samoa or Guam.

3. Political Repercussions:

  • WW2 (Europe): start of cold war
    • Two superpowers emerged after WW2: a capitalist USA and communist USSR, and both had conflicting aims for post-war Europe.
    • Tehran Conference: The USSR successfully forced the US and the UK to recognize USSR claims in Poland and Baltic states and discuss the second front in France.
    • Yalta Conference: established Four Power Control in Germany, the establishment of the UN, USSR in Pacific, and easily manipulated elections for Poland.
    • Potsdam Conference: ACC in Germany and reparations from their own zones. Poland couldn’t be influenced by the US/Britain.
    • Division of Germany:
      • USSR wanted influence in a reunified Germany and established the German Communist Party (KPD) violently.
      • US/Britain wanted a delay of reparations to the USSR for German economic recovery, and the Soviet responded by increasing reparations from East Germany.
      • British and US zones merged into Bizonia, and the USSR feared the formation of a separate, capitalist Germany.
      • The failure of the London Conference of Foreign Ministers allowed western German zones to create a democratic, federal West Germany with control over troops stationed and the industry of Ruhr.
      • Created Deutschmark in the West, and the USSR responded with Ostmark in the East and the Berlin Blockade.
      • The West would respond with the Berlin Airlift through previously granted airways, which was extremely successful.
      • Stalin was forced to concede and failed to stop the split of German states.
      • The establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in the west and German Democratic Republic (GDR) in the east and Berlin remained under four-power control.
  • CCW: shift to CCP and communism in Asia, issue with Taiwan
    • Single-party dictatorship/communist state with Mao as leader.
    • Persecution of other political organizations
    • Reunification Campaigns where Tibet and Xinjiang were reintroduced into China.
    • Nationalists continued to maintain they were the legitimate government of China while being housed in Taiwan, leading to military clashes in the Taiwanese Straits.

4. Economic Effects:

  • WW2 (Europe)
    • Industrial and military complexes expanded due to the War Production Board (WPB) and Lend-Lease program.
    • US industry was equipped with machine tools for maximum production efficiency of materiel.
    • FDR created the Office of Production Management (OPM) to balance materials for Lend-Lease with US demands of supply.
    • OPM combined to create the War Production Board (WPB), which would allocate factories to either wartime or civilian production.
    • The War Manpower Commission (WMC) would recruit huge numbers of workers for the industry and provide training services for unskilled workers.
    • The Office of Price Administration (OPA) would control prices and rents and successfully stabilize inflation rates.
    • However, strikes would rise after WW2 due to a rapid rise in inflation. Workers demanded consumer goods, wage increases, pensions, and health insurance.
    • West and Eastern Europe are economically isolated due to conflicting economic systems of capitalism in the West and communism in the East.
    • Marshall Plan of $13 billion to western Europe to help with the reconstruction of infrastructure that was damaged due to the war and prevent communism from spreading.
    • The USSR countered with the formation of COMECON to economically integrate the satellite states and effectively economically isolate eastern and western Europe.
  • CCW
    • The Chinese economy was weakened due to the destruction of urban centers during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
    • Also, destroyed and disrupted significant areas of agricultural land.
    • Detrimental impact on the currency, with inflation rising rapidly.
    • The implementation of communist principles was largely delayed until after the CCP consolidated power.

5. Social/Demographic Effects:

  • WW2: Death/destruction, minorities including Japanese Americas, status of women
    • 11 million people died in concentration camps.
    • Many civilians died due to disease, starvation, execution, and bad weather.
    • Destroyed infrastructure made millions homeless, and those who remained faced starvation because food couldn’t be transported.
    • About 14 million soldiers died due to combat, disease, or starvation.
    • Changes in the role and status of women:
      • 300k in the military serving in the Women’s Army Corps (WAC) in the army.
      • Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVE) in the navy.
      • Women still faced racial discrimination in employment, and many ‘hate strikes’ occurred.
      • The women’s army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) contributed to nonmilitary jobs, and the Women’s Army Corps were labeled as promiscuous.
      • About 19 million female workers at the height of the war.
      • They were still excluded from certain jobs, earned half of what a man would earn, and could be fired at any time and able to earn money/independence.
  • CCW: redefined social hierarchy, status of women improved. Casualties
    • During the CCW, Nationalists lost 1.5 million, and the CCP lost ¼ million.
    • But during the Second Sino-Japanese War: 3 million soldiers and 18 million civilian deaths due to famine and conflict.
    • Social Structure:
      • Landlords removed from power, with about 16 million people persecuted and land changes affecting 160 million people.
      • Co-operative and collective farms for peasant’s land reform policies
    • Women:
      • Nationalist zones saw legal status improved with the Civil Code of 1930, but no real change as traditional customs prevailed.
      • CCP zones saw women given leadership roles, labor source.
      • After their win, greater legal rights for women with the Marriage Law of 1950. But social customs and poverty meant little change.
      • By 1935, 6000 colleges admitted women, but female roles in society persisted and fulfilled a domestic role.

6. Impact on the role and status of women:

  • WW2
    • 300k in military serving in Women’s Amry Corps (WAC) in the army.
    • Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVE) in the navy.
    • Women still faced racial discrimination in employment and many ‘hate strikes’ occurred.
    • The women’s army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) contributed to nonmilitary jobs and the Women’s Army Corps were labeled as promiscuous.
    • About 19 million female workers at the height of the war.
    • They were still excluded from certain jobs, earned half of what a man would earn, and could be fired at any time. Able to earn money/independence.
    • Although once the war ended, women were forced to return to traditional roles as housewives.
  • Chinese Civil War Women:
    • Nationalist zones saw legal status improved with the Civil Code of 1930, but no real change as traditional customs prevailed.
    • CCP zones saw women given leadership roles, labor source.
    • After their win, greater legal rights for women with the Marriage Law of 1950. But social customs and poverty meant little change.
    • By 1935, 6000 colleges admitted women, but female roles in society persisted and fulfilled a domestic role.

Cold War: Superpower Tensions and Rivalries:

I. Rivalry, mistrust, and accord

1. Breakdown of Grand Alliance and emergence of superpower rivalry: role of ideology, fear and aggression, economic interest, comparison of the roles of the US and USSR

  • Ideology/economic interest:
    • Two superpowers emerged after WW2 that being a capitalist USA and communist USSR, and both had conflicting aims for post-war Europe.
    • USA aims were free world trade, the creation of the UN, and alliance with the USSR and Britain.
    • USSR aims were a buffer zone to prevent future attacks, reparations from Germany, territorial gains, and pro-Soviet regimes in Eastern Europe.
    • Tehran Conference: The USSR successfully forced the US and the UK to recognize USSR claims in Poland and Baltic states and discuss the second front in France.
    • Yalta Conference: Established Four Power Control in Germany, the establishment of the UN, USSR in Pacific and easily manipulated elections for Poland.
    • Potsdam Conference: ACC in Germany and reparations from their own zones. Poland couldn’t be influenced by the US/UK.
  • Fear and aggression/comparison of the roles of the USA and USSR (USA’s/USSR’s Actions and reactions)
    • Truman Doctrine: Outlined views of the state of international politics highlighting the divide between the US and the USSR. US declared a policy of preventing the spread of communism.
    • The Truman Doctrine led to the Marshall Plan, where $13 billion was given to European nations and the establishment of NATO as a defensive alliance against the USSR.
    • Cominform was created to promote ideological unity among communist parties in Europe and complete Sovietization of Soviet satellite states.
    • USSR’s reaction to the Marshal Plan was COMECON to integrate the economies of eastern Europe with the USSR.
    • The Warsaw Pact was made between the USSR and the Eastern Block to create a uniform military alliance to counteract NATO.
    • Traditionalist: blame of Stalin ignoring promises in Yalta, and the US responded defensively to aggressive Soviet moves.
    • Revisionist: The USA pursued policies to cause the Cold War as it would enforce political and economic ideas for US benefit.
    • Post-Revisionist: Access to USSR archives and found Stalin’s policies more subtle and less influential than initially viewed.

2. The US, USSR, and China – Superpower relations:

  • Containment
    • Truman Doctrine: Outlined views of the state of international politics highlighting the divide between the US and the USSR. US declared a policy of preventing the spread of communism.
    • The Truman Doctrine led to the Marshall Plan, where $13 billion was given to European nations and the establishment of NATO as a defensive alliance against the USSR.
  • Peaceful co-existence/détente
    • Nixon and Breshnev were willing to seek détente after the Cuban Missile Crisis occurred (Hotline and Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty).
    • The US was alarmed by anti-ballistic missiles (ABM) developed in the USSR, which countered MAD. Therefore, the US made multiple independently targeted re-entry vehicles (MIRVS) to shoot multiple missiles at once.
    • SALT negotiations saw a compromise that froze the construction of missile launches and the freeze on ICBMs.
    • The limitation of Anti-ballistic Missile Systems made only two ABMs for each country.
  • Sino-Soviet relations
    • The Soviet criticized Mao’s ‘Great Leap Forward,’ and Mao used the Soviets as scapegoats for the failure.
    • The Cultural Revolution hunted down political opponents of Mao’s communism, which included USSR revisionists.
    • The USSR refused to assist with the development of PRC nuclear technology under the Geneva accords.
    • The Sino-Soviet border conflict prevented further cooperation between the two countries and made both the USSR and China seek to improve relations with the US.
  • Sino-US relations
    • US and PRC rapprochement would occur as the Sino-Soviet alliance continued to deteriorate.
    • Because of the Sino-Soviet alliance in ruins, PRC and the US would seek hegemony, and the future of Taiwan would be settled peacefully, which would be a major blow to the USSR.
    • Taiwan was ousted from the UN, and PRC was officially recognized.

3. Confrontation and reconciliations; reasons for the end of the Cold War (1980-1991): ideological challenges and dissent; economic problems; arms race

  • Ideological Challenges and dissent
    • Germany:
      • Ostpolitik made increasing popular demand for closer contact with the FRG. The protest movement began to present a real challenge to the government, and its deteriorating economy discredited the regime.
      • Half a million people congregated in East Berlin for more reform, and finally, GDR’s parliament passed an exit visa into West Berlin and opened the Berlin Wall.
      • The Two-Plus-Four Treaty would be a peace treaty ending the partition of Germany, and in 1990, the GDR was integrated into the FRG.
    • USSR:
      • Glasnost allowed for openness of economic and political issues being debated. State censorship eased, which meant that failure in Afghanistan met international publicity.
      • Nationalists in the Baltic states formed Popular fronts and declared independence from the USSR, and other republics followed suit.
      • Elections were held in all USSR republics, and they all declared their sovereignty, and Gorbachev failed to have a new Union Treaty signed, leading to the dissolution of the USSR.
  • Economic problems/Arms Race
    • USSR invasion of Afghanistan became a substantial financial strain on the Soviet Union as they were forced to conduct all military operations against guerrillas.
    • USSR’s command economy was inflexible and couldn’t adapt to competitive prices of capitalist economies.
    • COMECON states failed to develop new industries based on information technology and amassed debt to western countries from loans.

II. Leaders and nations

1. Impact of 2 leaders on the course and development of the Cold War

  • Kennedy: Alliance for progress
    • The OAS meeting saw Kennedy promise $10 billion in public and private money, and LA had to promise economic and social reforms in the form of detailed plans.
    • In Chile, there were advances in education, housing, and land reforms with the construction of public schools and new housing.
    • The Alliance for progress was limited as each country had its deep-rooted economic problems, which couldn’t be solved immediately. Moreover, some countries lacked political stability.
    • Also, the Alliance for progress was too American as it sometimes required the purchase of American products.
  • Reasons for Vietnam Involvement
    • Kennedy saw the importance of newly emergent nations of the ‘Third World’ as a new Cold War battle ground. Fell to the commitment trap where the USA had already committed to help South Vietnam before. Lastly, domestic pressures of a weak foreign policy and being called inexperienced due to his youth.
    • Kennedy helped stage a military coup in South Vietnam to replace Diem and continued to support the new regime.
    • Orthodox interpretation: USA containing Communist aggression and expansion in Vietnam. Revisionist: aggressive US economic Policies. Post-Revisionist: a variety of factors like economics and domestic politics.
    • Quagmire Theory: US overconfidence caused them to be trapped. Stalemate Theory: USA continued escalation to avoid being seen as losing. Commitment trap: Successive presidents would inherit commitment to Vietnam.
  • Bay of Pigs
    • Kennedy supported the invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles, planned by the CIA.
    • He did this because he promised to do something about Castro, Republicans would have been highly critical, and it seemed like a surefire method as Kennedy believed in Eisenhower military expertise and CIA’s prestige.
    • Exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs but failed to stimulate an anti-Castro rising, Castro already knew of the invasion, and the US wouldn’t send backup.
    • Kennedy’s approval rating went up, but the USA and Kennedy were humiliated in the eyes of the world and criticized for illegal invasion.
    • Castro’s popularity and position in Cuba were secured.
    • Castro moved even closer to the USSR and made economic agreements with the Soviets. He announced himself as communist after the invasion.
    • Brought USSR attention to possible weakness in the USA’s backyard.
    • Kennedy was encouraged to commit to Vietnam and stand up to Khrushchev during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
  • Krushchev: Cuban Missile Crisis
    • Krushchev promised Castro he would defend Cuba and deter another invasion of Cuba by the Kennedy administration.
    • Khrushchev had fewer ICBMs and bombers, so he put existing missiles in Cuba to maintain the balance of power.
    • The USA had missiles pointed at the USSR in Turkey, so now Khrushchev thought the USA could live under a nuclear threat.
    • Khruschev thought he could get away with it since Kennedy allowed for the Berlin wall and needed to impress critics at home and in China.
    • Demonstrated how a small country like Cuba was used as a pawn in the Cold War.
    • Khrushchev fell from power, and Kennedy triumphed by calling the Soviet’s bluff.
  • Berlin Crisis
    • GDR was an unpopular state due to a lack of national identity, a stagnant economy, an oppressive state, and the ability to flee to the prosperous West through Berlin.
    • Khrushchev ultimatum wanted the demilitarization of West Berlin so the GDR could then control Berlin and become recognized as an official state.
    • New president Kennedy wanted to preserve the freedom of West Berlin but wouldn’t intervene in closing the frontier between East and West Berlin.
    • GDR had an economic crisis when independent farmers were forced into collective farms. Khrushchev decided to seal the border with the Berlin Wall.
    • The Berlin Wall failed at forcing the withdrawal of troops from West Berlin and peace treaties between the German States.
    • Successful in forcing recognition of GDR as an independent state.
    • The Berlin Wall became a symbol of the divide between West and East and the oppression of communist states.

2. Impact of the Cold War on two countries

  • Cuba: Bay of Pigs
    • Kennedy supported the invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles, planned by the CIA.
    • He did this because he promised to do something about Castro, Republicans would have been highly critical, and it seemed like a surefire method as Kennedy believed in Eisenhower military expertise and CIA’s prestige.
    • Exiles landed at the Bay of Pigs but failed to stimulate an anti-Castro rising, Castro already knew of the invasion, and the US wouldn’t send backup.
    • Castro’s popularity and position in Cuba were secured.
    • Castro moved even closer to the USSR and made economic agreements with the Soviets. He announced himself as communist after the invasion.
  • Cuban Missile Crisis
    • Castro was upset that he wasn’t consulted about the missiles and tried to move away from USSR control. Castro’s communism
    • Due to American hostility and rejection of US economic domination, Castro turned to Sovietization of Cuba.
    • Castro relied on a Communist-style command economy and Nationalism stemming from anti-Americanism to establish and organized regime.
    • While the USA would disapprove of Castro’s regime, the USSR would give subsidies to greatly benefit the Cuban economy.
    • After the Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuban nationalism and anti-Americanism rose dramatically and pushed Cuba closer to the USSR.
    • However, after the Cuban Missile Crisis, Castro was upset how Khrushchev removed missiles without his consent, and tensions remained uneasy.
    • Due to kindship with other toppling other LA dictatorships, Castro sent expeditions to assist in communist revolts in LA but was largely unsuccessful.
    • However, in Africa, Cuban aid to Angola was extremely significant during the Angola civil war. Castro was motivated to prove he wasn’t a puppet of the USSR and emphasize a better society at home.
  • Germany
    • Division of Germany:
      • The USSR wanted influence in a reunified Germany and established the German Communist Party (KPD) violently.
      • US/Britain wanted a delay of reparations to the USSR for German economic recovery, and the Soviet responded by increasing reparations from East Germany.
      • British and US zones merged into Bizonia, and the USSR feared the formation of a separate, capitalist Germany.
      • The failure of the London Conference of Foreign Ministers allowed western German zones to create a democratic, federal West Germany with control over troops stationed and the industry of Ruhr.
      • Created Deutschmark in the West, and the USSR responded with Ostmark in the East and the Berlin Blockade.
      • The West would respond with the Berlin Airlift through previously granted airways, which was extremely successful.
      • Stalin was forced to concede and failed to stop the split of German states.
      • The establishment of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in the West and German Democratic Republic (GDR) in the East and Berlin remained under four-power control.
  • Berlin Crisis:
    • GDR was an unpopular state due to a lack of national identity, a stagnant economy, an oppressive