Society, schools and culture 5

One major obstacle to the rise of a strong aristocratic or gentry class in the colonies was the frontier's availability, allowing individuals to seek new opportunities away from established centers. This situation pressured dominant Tidewater leaders to adapt political, land, and religious policies due to the threat of mass migration to the frontier. Simultaneously, the period also laid important foundations for American education and culture. Harvard College was established in 1636, followed by the College of William and Mary, and later Yale University. The Puritan emphasis on literacy, driven by their desire for scriptural reading, led to the 1647 “ye olde deluder Satan” Act in Massachusetts, mandating grammar schools in towns with over 50 families. By the end of the century, every New England colony, except Rhode Island, had similar educational initiatives. Private schools and night schools in cities like Philadelphia offered varied curricula, while ongoing literacy efforts included the first printing press in 1638 at Harvard, reflecting an early commitment to education across the colonies.
In the 18th century, education for wealthy Philadelphian daughters included private teachers focusing on French, music, and other subjects. The intellectual scene was shaped significantly by James Logan and Benjamin Franklin. Logan, a colonial secretary, hosted Franklin's exploration of scientific literature and established a library for the public. Franklin, a key figure in education, founded a debating club which led to the American Philosophical Society, a public academy that evolved into the University of Pennsylvania, and initiated a subscription library, deemed the first in North America. In the Southern colonies, affluent families hired tutors or sent children to England for education, showing little interest in public education due to successful plantations. Despite this, the Scots-Irish on the frontier sought learning and attracted knowledgeable ministers. Literary production was mainly in New England, focusing on religious works and sermons, with notable figures like Reverend Cotton Mather. The first successful newspaper appeared in Cambridge in 1704, with 22 published by 1745, marking the beginnings of press freedom in New York.
The case of John Peter Zenger, whose New York Weekly Journal challenged the colonial government after its founding in 1733, marked a significant moment in freedom of the press. After two years, Zenger was imprisoned for seditious libel due to his critical writings. Despite this, he continued to edit his journal during his nine-month trial, which captivated colonial attention. His lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, successfully defended him by arguing that Zenger’s claims were true, resulting in a not guilty verdict. This event coincided with the Great Awakening, a religious revival sparked by fears of societal decline due to increasing prosperity. Key figures included George Whitefield, renowned for his emotional preaching, and Jonathan Edwards, who critiqued established churches. Edwards’s famous 1741 sermon, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” presented a thoughtful critique against established religious practices. The Great Awakening led to the rise of evangelical denominations, encouraged personal piety, and fostered religious toleration, reshaping American religious culture and diminishing clergy authority.