Human Anatomy Note

Week 1 Anatomical position

  • Introduction by Rowaida Sleem, topic coordinator for Human Bioscience.

  • Acknowledgment of recording on Kaurna land and respects to elders.

  • Module 1 Objectives:

    • Define anatomy and physiology and their relationship.

    • Discuss anatomical terms: body sections, regions, relative positions.

    • Explain negative and positive feedback in maintaining homeostasis (discussed in another video).

Human Anatomy

  • Human bioscience = human anatomy and physiology.

  • Anatomy definition: scientific study of body structures and their relationships.

  • Structure can be:

    • Microscopic: Requires a microscope (e.g., cytology - cells).

    • Macroscopic: Easily observed, weighed, measured (e.g., heart, brain, kidney structure).

  • Anatomy's Greek root: "cut apart."

    • Historically, observation of internal structures required surgery or autopsy.

Areas of Specialization in Anatomy

  • Gross Anatomy: Study of larger, visible structures without magnification (macro).

  • Microscopic Anatomy: Study of structures requiring a microscope (nerve tissues, cells).

  • Regional Anatomy: Study of structures in a specific body region (e.g., abdomen: intestines, liver, stomach).

    • Not all organs in a region are entirely within it (e.g., rectum extends into pelvic area).

  • Systemic Anatomy: Study of structures within a body system (e.g., respiratory system: nasal cavities, pharynx, trachea, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs).

Human Physiology

  • Physiology Definition: scientific study of chemistry and physics of body structures and how they work together.

  • Focus on Function: Explores the chemistry and physics involved in the functionality of body structures.

    • Example: Pancreas (endocrine and exocrine functions) secreting juices and hormones like insulin from Beta islets of Langerhans.

  • Physiology Definition: Scientific study of the structure, chemistry, and physics of the body and their collaborative functions to sustain life.

  • Central Concept: Homeostasis, maintaining internal equilibrium (e.g., glucose levels, blood pressure, body temperature around 37^{\circ}C).

    • Homeostasis will be discussed in detail in the next lecture.

Specializations in Physiology

  • Physiologists: Specialists in particular branches like neurophysiology (brain, spinal cord, nerves).

  • Methodology: Observation (naked eye and microscope), manipulation, and measurement (body temperature, glucose levels, blood pressure, urine analysis).

Relationship Between Anatomy and Physiology

  • Interdependence: Anatomy is linked to the structures/form and physiology is linked to their function, and they can't accurately me studied in isolation. It is important to study them together.

  • Physiology depends on anatomy: Structure implies function.

  • Anatomy gives an idea about a function. The function explains where it should be located.

  • Example: Liver location (right upper abdomen/quadrant) implies digestive function (bile secretion for lipid emulsification).

  • Understanding hand anatomy (bones) requires understanding hand function (manipulating tools).

Anatomical Terminology

  • Specific terminology used in anatomy:

    • Anatomical position.

    • Regional terms.

    • Directional terms.

    • Body planes.

    • Regional anatomy.

    • Body cavities and serous membranes.

Anatomical Position

  • Standardized view of the body: Standing upright, feet shoulder width apart and parallel, toes forward.

  • Anterior View:

    • Head upright.

    • Feet on the floor.

    • Shoulders aligned with feet width.

    • Arms supine (palms facing forward).

    • Facial features visible.

  • Posterior View:

    • Dorsal side visible.

    • Backs of hands visible.

  • Importance of memorizing body region names (e.g., thumb, fingers, arm, forearm, leg, tarsal, metatarsals).

  • Example: A scar on the anterior carpal (wrist) region.

  • Body Position:

    • Prone: Lying face down.

    • Supine: Lying face up.

Regional Position

  • Brachium: Upper arm, NOT the entire arm region.

  • Antebrachium: Forearm, the lower arm region

  • Femur/Thigh: upper part of a leg

  • Crus/Leg: lower part of a leg

  • Reminder: Memorize regional terms.

Directional Terms

  • Describe relative locations of body structures.

  • Anterior (Ventral): Front of the body (toes are anterior to the foot).

  • Posterior (Dorsal): Back of the body (popliteus is posterior to the patella).

  • Superior (Cranial): Above (nose is superior to the chin).

  • Inferior (Caudal): Below (pelvis is inferior to the abdomen).

  • Lateral: Side (ears are lateral).

  • Medial: Toward the middle (vertebra is medial).

  • Proximal: Nearer to the attachment point (brachium is proximal to the antebrachium).

  • Distal: Farther from the attachment point (crus is distal to the femur).

  • Superficial: Closer to the body surface (skin is superficial to bones).

  • Deep: Farther from the body surface (brain is deep to the skull).

Body Planes

  • Section: Two-dimensional surface of a cut three-dimensional structure.

  • Plane: Imaginary two-dimensional surface through the body.

  • Sagittal Plane: Divides body vertically into right and left.

    • Midsagittal (Median) Plane: Equal right and left halves.

    • Parasagittal Plane: Unequal right and left sides.

  • Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides body into anterior and posterior.

  • Transverse Plane: Divides body horizontally into superior and inferior.

    • Produces cross-sections.

Body Cavities and Serous Membranes

  • Internal Organization: Maintained by membranes and structures that separate compartments.

  • Two main body cavities:

    • Dorsal (posterior)

      • Cranial cavity (brain).

      • Vertebral cavity (spinal cord).

    • Ventral (anterior):

      • Thoracic cavity.

      • Abdominal cavity

      • Pelvic cavity.

  • Abdominal and pelvic cavities grouped as abdominopelvic cavity.

  • Diaphragm: Separates thoracic and abdominal cavities.

  • Ventral Function: Allow changes in organ size and shape.

  • The regions of the Abdomen are divided into nine regions or four quadrants.

  • Serous Membranes (Serosa): Thin membranes covering walls and organs in cavities.

    • Parietal Layer:

      • Outer membrane.

      • Lines the walls of the body cavity.

    • Visceral Layer:

      • Inner membrane.

      • Covers the organs within the cavity.

    • Serous Space: Thin, fluid-filled space between layers to reduce friction.

  • Specific serous membranes:

    • Pericadium: Around heart.

    • Pleura: Around lungs.

    • Peritoneum: Around abdominal pelvic organs.

  • Retroperitoneal Organs: Organs not enclosed by a cavity.

  • Role of serous membranes: Reduce friction and protect internal organs by secreting fluids and forming cushioned sacs and cavities.

    • Membranes also provide additional protection to viscera they enclosed by reducing friction, which could lead to inflammation of the organs.

    • Pneumothorax: Inflammation at the level of the serous membranes of your lungs

    • Peritonitis: If someone might have got inflammation within the peritoneal area

Lecture 2: Introduction to Body Systems and Homeostasis

  • Acknowledgment of recording on Kaurna land and respects to elders.

  • Learning Objectives:

    • Discuss hierarchy of basic structure of organisms.

    • Explain concept and importance of homeostasis.

    • Describe how negative and positive feedback are involved in regulation of homeostasis.

    • Consider disease as pathophysiology as a product of disrupted homeostasis.

  • Structure of body: Complex, interconnected systems.

    • Systems -> organs -> tissues -> cells.

  • 11 human body systems (studied separately but function integrated).

Hierarchy of Basic Structure of Organisms

  • Atomic/Chemical Level: Atoms combine to form molecules.

  • Cellular Level: Molecules form cells.

  • Tissue Level: Similar cells (e.g., smooth muscle cells) form tissues.

  • Organ Level: Different tissues (epithelial, smooth muscle, connective) form an organ (e.g., blood vessel).

  • System Level: Organs (heart, blood vessels) form an organ system (circulatory system).

  • Organism Level: 11 systems form an organism.

Cells

  • Eukaryotic cells: Include a nucleus containing a nucleolus, whose main characteristic is the presence of genetic material.

  • Cell membrane (plasma membrane): Phospholipid bilayer, selectively permeable.

  • Cytoplasm: Between nucleus and cell membrane, contains organelles.

  • Organelles:

    • Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, produces ATP, contains maternal circular DNA.

    • Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes: plays a role in Gene translation (Protein production)

    • Golgi apparatus.

  • Cells: Smallest functional, structural unit of living organisms, made of complex molecules and they are organelles.

  • Cell Types: Structure determines function.

    • Sperm cell: Flagellum (tail) for swimming to fertilize the oocyte, containing paternal genetic material

    • Nerve cell: Long axon for transmitting electrical signals.

Tissues

  • Collection of similar cells grouped together to perform a specific function.

  • Epithelial tissue: Lines body surfaces.

  • Connective tissues: Connect and support

    • Acts as padding under the skin and elsewhere

    • Bone, cartilage, and blood (cells in liquid matrix).

  • Muscle tissue: Fibers for movement.

  • Nerve tissues (consists of): Cells w/ projections that transmit electrical signal.

Organs

  • Arrangement of tissues to perform a specific function (e.g., liver, heart, intestine, stomach, pancreas, bladder).

Systems

  • Group of organs working together to perform a specific function (e.g., brain, spinal cord, nerves form nervous system).

  • 11 Systems: Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, circulatory, endocrine, lymphatic, digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive.

  • Human Bioscience Topic:

    • Overview of structures (organs: shape/structure heart, tissues, cells, epithelial cells).

    • Functions of major body systems (nervous system).

    • Normal vs. pathological roles.

    • Structure impact on function, physiology.

Homeostasis

  • Definition: Maintenance of relatively constant internal environment.

  • Example: Fasting blood glucose level (4 to 5.4 mmole per liter).

  • Regulates Body Systems and repair.

  • Critical Variables affected by:

    • Environmental factors (temperature).

    • Materials needed by cells (oxygen, glucose).

    • Factors of cells (Calcium).

  • Homeostasis: Regulated within a range of values, not a single value.

  • Failure of Homeostasis: Disease state.

  • Pathophysiology: Study of body functions in a disease state (e.g., Diabetes mellitus: abnormally high blood glucose because of bad insulin regulation from the pancreas/Islets of Langerhans).

General Mechanism of Homeostasis

  • Stimulus: Change in the body (e.g., eating chocolate, which increases levels of glucose).

  • Receptors: Detect change and send message to control center.

  • Control Center (e.g., pancreas): Secretes hormone (insulin).

  • Effector Organs/Cells (e.g muscle cells): Absorb glucose from blood.

  • Return to Normal (4-5.4 mmole per liter/internal): Leads to negative feedback.

What are the main factor that affects homeostasis.

  • Maintaining normal levels of things in the body like glucose or blood pressure.

  • Maintenance involves many systems, not just one.

  • Body temperature:

    • Human beings are endotherms: Ability to maintain internal temperature.

    • Integumentary : Prevents loss of temperature. Sweating in hot environments.

    • Muscular produces heat is produced while contracting.

    • Cardiovascular transport of heat

    • Nervous: Control of blood flow and coordinating the system with each other.

  • Body Fluid Composition (Nutrient Concentration):

    • Digestive : Absorption, store and release of nutrients.

    • Cardiovascular : Distribution of nutrients.

    • Urinary controls nutrients in the waste (urine).

    • Skeletal provides minerals (calcium) via deposit or withdraw.

  • Oxygen (Carbon Dioxide Levels):

    • Respiratory (Oxygen/Carbon dioxide balance)

    • Cardiovascular (transports Oxygen and CO2)

  • Toxins (Pathogens):

    • Lymphatic takes out toxins and pathogens.

  • Body is a fluid volume (water):

    • Urinary conserves fluid.

    • Digestive reabsorbs for the lack of supply.

    • Integument loss via sweat.

    • Cardiovascular delivery of fluid throughout.

  • Waste Product Concentration:

    • Urinary Waste excretion

    • Digestive Waste removal

    • Cardiovascular Waste transport.

  • Blood Pressure:

    • Cardiovascular Pressure to body

    • Nervous balance using heartrate and blood transport.
      *What do we know about the body's internal environment:
      *Extracellular fluids (ECS): A fluid buffer surrounding the cells that needs to be kept stable
      *Intercellular fluids- Fluids that are inside the cells (Not the outside ones).

Equilibrium vs Homeostasis (Continued)

  • Cell Illustration of Extracellular to internal balance of outside environment

  • Normal ions throughout cellular anatomy:
    *Intracellular fluids- High K+ and Low Na+ and Cl-
    *Extracellular fluids- High Na+ and CL- and low K+
    *Normal internal environment vs what is normal in homeostasis.
    *Difference between equilibrium and plasma. The body always maintain dynamic in the system for constant movement.
    If there is a failure in maintaining homeostasis the individual may be subject to disease. . The causes of the disease is the Pathogenesis, generation or production of creation.

Homeostasis Mechanism and Feedback Loops

  • Glucose Level Example: Discussed in previous lecture using negative reaction

  • Always use negative feedback, all the time *Positive Feed Back Loop Only, Exception to Both (Child Birth and Blood Clotting are the Unique Ones) *Child Birth:

    • Babies drop to stretch for cervices

    • Oxytocin hormones get released for uterine contraction as stimulus

    • Contraction for cervix stretching will start again

    • Once at it's maximum and baby is delivered to prevent any harm and the process will stop
      *Blood Clotting (Unique One As it Need a Positive Feedback at The Moment):

    • It starts with inure where the cell will secrete chemicals to clot

    • Chemicals starts with cell fragments and accumulation in the blood clot for closure

    • More and more chemicals will speed the process into a loop- to get the healing process for stopping.

    • At the stop or seal, it cuts off as there's no more feedback from it needed.
      *Lecture Summary Review of all things discussed in the past two lectures.

South Wing Science Laboratories Rules By Sue (Enquiry Window in S3, isfor1 and Phone number on Screen.) Lost property can be collected also.

*The Staff wants the user to make the most out of what the Laboratories can do:
*Dress and behave in a manner that demonstrates respect
*Leaving the area around cleaned and tidy after workshop/experimentation. You should find them set that way if not
*Never Eating, or drinking liquids for safety reasons, as well never dispose of sharps (Needles/glass/scalpels) yellow containers.
*Demonstration on prepping a Microscope Slide (to Test the user) starts
*Glass slides and Cover (Always)
*Distilled water only (Only water allowed here)
*Methylene Blue and cotton swap as well gloves
*Cheek Swab goes 1-2 and smear spread even using the swab
*Methylene used to stain the nucleus. and cover
*Keep stage turned on when viewing the specimen. Look through the eye area adjust using the knobs from the sides.
*Keep in mind of the course and fine course- as well starting with the lower power first and magnification goes in progression.

Atomic structure

*Lecture 3 chemistry for bioscience HLTH1004
*Learning- Atomic Structure, interactions, Major (Chemicals) Water (How it affect things) pH (How it effects things) Main Chemicals (Bonds Structure Function) Nucleic (Acids/bonds)
*Atom made up subatomic particles.
*Matter contains a mass to and is all atoms, which create different combinations.
*Sub atomic particles: Protons, neutrons, electrons cloud, which orbit
-Weight of Protons and Neutrons gives element its mass, atomic
Electrons allows/permits chemical bonding and atomic characteristics.
*1869 Mendeleev Dmitri created with all the atomic mass.
*Each square contains the name, (some not direct), and element is a singular atom.
-Weight of the elements mass is the unit above
-Properties with the squares shows if metal, crystalline, configuration and color.
-6 of 99 percent of elements weight contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and calcium and phosphorus
-Isotopes is the changing number of protons or neutrons, the average is called mass numbers which is decay rate called half life.

Molecules and Compounds.

*Elements bond each other for sharing, electrons and outermost. and these three are bond major in nature.
-Ionic Bond (Electrical, Cation+) , Covalent Bond (Even Shared), and Hydrogen Bonding (Like Electricity Attract).
*Ionic Bond (Complete transfer from positive to negative)
*One donor(Sodium)and One electron Accepter(Chloride-) from ionic compact creates charger, and ion is charger.
Metals (Loses) and Nonmetal(Acceptor)
-Formation of Ionic Bond: Sodium one election vs Chlorine One, and transfer one to make a Electrical transfer
*Covalent Bond (Electron Even)
*Even sharing of electrons where one Electron is donated, Single, Double with pairs(Two), Triple Bonds (Three)
-Water (H2O ) is polar due to pull of electrons. This creates hydrogen bonding.
For Element of energy, gas is highest and solid is lowest- creating heat. This can gas, liquid, or solid and there is a special fourth one called plasma
*Chemical Reactions. (Matter no created but replaced)
- Reactants materials going in. Products- Results of Reaction
Energy- Ability to do work vs what it means. Potential is stored vs Kenetic is movement.
*Four Reactions- Decomposition, Synthesis, exchange, reversible
-Not all happens, they need Catalyst-Enzymes to happen(Activation Energy graph.
-surface/catalyst reduce effort to occur, helps perform reaction to occur.
*Organic (Body contains carbons), inorganic(Not from Body)

Properties Of Water and all in Lecture 3

*Water (the Universal Solvent) where all uniform liquids exist between two things.- Water, accounts for 2/3rds of the body.
-Polar molecules (Water with a force is what occurs).
-Dissociation, Is where ionic is released due to electricity or bonds.
-Water Molocules form hydration states around and stay in solution.
-Glucose in is the same however they dissolves different and both are in solution regardless of the water (Polarity)
*Electrolytes (Inorganic Ions) that conduct electrolytes thru solution, balance effects water movements).
-Electrolyte charge affects water.
-Sodium choleride- (Sodium+ Chloride-).
Calcium Phosphate- (Calcium2, Phosphate2)
Does not disolved in water is said to Hydrophobic, water is hydrophilic..
*Membrane with fatty acids are what keeps the water out, but some allows it in.
*Osmosis, water travels through with electrolytes through the membrane.
*High contraction of that is lower water molecules travelling, vs smaller
*Fluid -Composent for what maintains long term
-Hormones- Long term communication using ADH(Reduce Volume) and the Peptide group AMP(Increases Volume for Loss)

pH: Lecture 3.

*pH: Measure of Hydrogen Ions that Inverse in relation.
More Hydrogen to release is more acidic and lower in pH,
Less Hydrogen and even is neutral.
Pure H2O is Neutral, human blood is slightly alkaline. To much acid effects (body/chemicals)

pH Review (Continued)

*pH is level concentration of hydrogen
-More Hydrogen = More acidic and number gets small
Neutral has a value of 7 with hydroxide and equal.
*Alkaline/Basic is 7 or greater due to more Hydrogen and releasing ions.
*Buffer balance it all, where by acting like a sink by mopping up and helping all for maintenance with the Hydrogen.
Maintaining Ph is a must, which water follows, in return to make cell and volume well. If fails, issues start.
*Volumes and balance with processes are key.
1. Food, body and processes for a good electrolyte amount
2. Fluid Balance, via loss or sweat but regulated throughout.
3. Blood and Digestive re process electrolytes.
4. Osmosis Water movement from high concentration into lower one.

Fluid Compartments (Cont)

*Three hormes- ADH Reduces, ANP increases, (Peptides)
*What's internal body needs to remb:

  1. 5lit a day thru food production where water goes out vs what comes
    High acidity level can lead to high amounts of h+ and needs
    -Kidney and lungs need balance. Acids can be volatile or stable (See more below)
    1. Acids fixed stay and remains until kindest removes them. (Amino)
    2. Acid Metablic can breakdown (Citric,lactic)
    3. Acids Volatile exits in gas carbon/anhydrase. High carbon dioxide is poison.
    Acid should be neutralized with H.I and prevent tissue damage when present.
    *Compensatory Mechanisms- By either renal (Ions) that can effect kidney or blood to function or by respitory changing level of CO2.

Buffers

How we Neutralize it:
-Use Buffers (Blood) to balance/stable level, when acidic or donating of Hydrogens.
-Systems has to contains acid(Release) and Base(Absorb)
-Three Buffers in Body:
1. Phosphate (Cells Produced weak)
2. Proteins (To transfer back and force across cellular membrane. With plasma buffers.
3.Carbonic Acid Bicarbonate (ECF/Carbon)

How We do it to Keep it Going

*We do so because it keeps fluid, electrolyte, and ions to give life, it would effect the cell due to its delicate nature.
-The waste via gas and CO2 will cause and to increase Hydrogen + for H.I with the process and in-balance, this may cause problems to that individual/organ/item.

*Final Notes:
-We can use the Lungs/Red Blood Cell (RBC) to control with Oxygen & co and help eliminate acids from body.
-We can also use kidneys if need be to assist the lungs but over all not effect the body itself either.

Haemolysis and osmosis Lab report

*Need 8 tubes, distilled water, NaCl and Horse blood.
*Label and add what is needed
*Can be affected depending as in drops or mistakes but that can be fixed using the centrifuge machine where they need to be placed
*Afterwards take sample and compare what happen for ruptures the result.
*The lower or what has little NaCl has great Haemolysis amount result.
*The level test the effect of the acid and base as well.

Notes on Testing with Basic and Acid with Horse blood sample

-Water to distill, Horse Blood, NaOH,and HCI also pH monitor,
.*Meter tested by Water is first tested in pH than rinsed to use again. Test in the tube for before and after using meter with each item to test properly.
At stage the Blood sample always stay close to pH of 7+ and even. Water sample on another hand will dramatically change.

*Need 8 tubes, distilled water, NaCl and Horse blood.
*Label and add what is needed
*Can be affected depending as in drops or mistakes but that can be fixed using the centrifuge machine where they need to be placed
*Afterwards take sample and compare what happen for ruptures the result.
*The lower or what has little NaCl has great Haemolysis amount result.
*The level test the effect of the acid and base as well. ###### Notes on Testing with Basic and Acid with Horse blood sample -Water to distill, Horse Blood, NaOH,and HCI also pH monitor,
.\*Meter tested by Water is first tested in pH than rinsed to use again. Test in the tube for before and after using meter with each item to test properly.
At stage the Blood sample always stay close to pH of 7+ and even. Water sample on another hand will dramatically change. - It is important to record all pH values accurately throughout the experiment to ensure reliable data and conclusions can be drawn from the results. Additionally, variations in pH can indicate the presence of metabolic activity in the blood sample. Monitoring these changes allows researchers to make informed assessments about the physiological state of the organism being studied. Furthermore, tracking the fluctuations in pH levels in both the blood and water samples can reveal critical insights into how environmental factors influence metabolic processes. Such monitoring is crucial for understanding the overall health and function of the organism, enabling more targeted interventions or treatments based on physiological responses. In particular, careful attention should be paid to the relationship between pH variations and specific metabolic pathways, as these correlations can enhance our comprehension of disease mechanisms and inform therapeutic approaches. By connecting these metabolic pathways to pH trends, researchers can identify potential biomarkers for various health conditions, ultimately paving the way for advancements in preventive and personalized medicine. This approach not only helps in the early detection of disorders but also aids in the development of tailored treatment plans that align with individual patient needs. Moreover, understanding how different tissues respond to pH changes can contribute to our knowledge of tissue-specific metabolic adaptations and resilience, which is vital for developing effective health strategies. Furthermore, ongoing research in this area can reveal insights into metabolic diseases such as diabetes or cancer, where abnormal pH levels may play a significant role in disease progression and patient outcomes. Ultimately, integrating pH monitoring into routine clinical practice could revolutionize diagnostic procedures and patient management. This comprehensive understanding of metabolic responses opens up new avenues for innovative therapies and interventions, ensuring that medical practices are both responsive and responsible to the complex biochemical landscape of individual patients.