Comprehensive Study Notes: History of Medieval India (800–1700)700
India and the World (8th–18th Century)
Global Context: The period between the 8th and 18th centuries saw the rise of new social and political forms across Europe and Asia, significantly impacting India through trade and cultural exchanges via the Mediterranean, Roman, and Persian empires.
Europe:
Collapse of Western Roman Empire: By the 6th century, the western empire was overwhelmed by Slav and Germanic tribes, leading to the formation of modern European nations.
Byzantine Empire: Centered at Constantinople, it maintained Roman traditions, Greek Orthodox Christianity, and acted as a bridge between Greco-Roman civilization and the Arab world until its fall to the Turks in 1453.
Feudalism: Emerging after the Roman breakup, power rested with landed chiefs (vassals) who provided military service to kings in exchange for land (fiefs). It was characterized by serfdom (peasants tied to land) and the manor system.
Technological Growth: The introduction of the iron stirrup and new harnesses (likely from the East) revolutionized cavalry warfare, making the armored knight the dominant symbol of the age.
The Arab World:
Rise of Islam: United warring tribes into a massive empire spanning Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, North Africa, and Spain.
Abbasid Caliphate: Established its capital at Baghdad. Famous caliphs al-Mamun and Harun al-Rashid patronized the 'House of Wisdom' (Bait-ul-Hikmat), translating Greek, Persian, and Indian works into Arabic.
Scientific Contributions: The Arabs popularized the Indian decimal system (Arab numerals), advanced algebra, geometry, optics, and medicine. Merchants introduced banking devices like Bills of Exchange (hundis).
East and Southeast Asia:
China: Experienced a peak under Tang rule (8th–9th cent.), exporting silk and porcelain via the Silk Road. The Mongol (Yuan) dynasty later unified China and expanded into Vietnam and Korea.
Southeast Asian Empires: The Sailendra (Sri Vijaya) and Kambuja empires flourished, acting as bridges for trade and culture between India and China. Notable achievements include the Borobudur temple in Java and Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
Northern India: Age of Three Empires (800–1000)
The Tripartite Struggle: A three-way conflict between the Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas for control of Kanauj, the symbol of sovereignty in the Ganga valley.
The Pala Empire (East):
Founding: Gopala founded the dynasty in AD\ 750 to end anarchy. Dharmapala (770–810) and Devapala (810–850) expanded power into Bihar and Assam.
Culture: Great patrons of Buddhism; Dharmapala revived Nalanda University and founded Vikramasila University. Maintained profitable trade with Southeast Asia.
The Pratihara Empire (West):
Founding: Gained prominence under Nagabhatta I, who resisted Arab incursions from Sindh.
Bhoja (836–885): Known as Adivaraha; reclaimed Kanauj and built the strongest cavalry in India using horses imported from Central Asia.
The Rashtrakuta Empire (Deccan):
Founding: Established by Dantidurga at Manyakhet. Rulers like Govinda III and Amoghavarsha (814–878) were powerful warriors and patrons of literature.
Religious Tolerance: They permitted Muslim traders to settle and build mosques, fostering foreign trade.
Art: Krishna I built the famous rock-cut Kailasanatha temple at Ellora.
Political Organization:
Structure: Monarchy was hereditary and central. Kingdoms were divided into provinces (bhukti), districts (visaya), and villages (grama).
Feudalization: The rise of hereditary revenue officers (nad\ gavundas) and smaller chiefs (samantas) weakened centralized control and village autonomy.
South India: The Chola Empire (900–1200)
Rise of the Cholas: Founded by Vijayalaya (AD\ 850); reached zenith under Rajaraja I (985–1014) and Rajendra I (1014–1044).
Naval Supremacy: The Cholas conquered Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and launched successful naval expeditions against the Sri Vijaya empire (Malay Peninsula/Sumatra) to secure trade routes to China.
Local Self-Government: Unique system of village administration through assemblies like the Ur and the Sabha (Brahman villages or agraharams), managed by elected committees.
Cultural Life:
Architecture: The Dravida style peaked with the Brihadishwara temple at Tanjore. Features included the multi-storeyed vimana, mandappa (pillared hall), and massive gopurams (gateways).
Sculpture: Famous for bronze images, notably the Nataraja (dancing Shiva).
Literature: Growth of regional languages; Kamban wrote the Tamil Ramayana. Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna were the 'three gems' of Kannada poetry.
Economic and Social Life (800–1200)
Trade: India remained a global manufacturing hub. Ports like Tamralipti (East) and Cambay (West) facilitated trade with Southeast Asia and the West. While some Brahmanical texts banned sea travel, merchants disregarded this.
Social Structure:
Rajputization: New ruling clans emerged by legitimizing power through Brahmanical aid, claiming descent from solar/lunar lines or the sacrificial fire (agnikula).
Shudras and Dalits: The social position of Shudras improved slightly as they became cultivators, but the position of 'untouchables' (antyaja) deteriorated.
Women: Generally occupied a dependent position; marriageable age was lowered. However, property rights for widows improved. The practice of sati became more common among the ruling class.
Education: Focused on the Vedas, grammar, and philosophy. Scientific growth slowed due to increasing orthodoxy and insularity, noted by the traveler al-Biruni.
Religion: Decline of Buddhism and rise of the Bhakti movement. Sankara popularized the Advaitavada (non-dualism) philosophy. Ramanuja bridged Bhakti with the Vedas, opening salvation to the lower castes.
The Age of Conflict (1000–1200)
The Ghaznavids: Mahmud of Ghazni (998–1030) launched 17 raids into India, focusing on plundering wealth from temples (e.g., Somnath) to fund his Central Asian wars. He annexed the Punjab, providing a staging ground for future Turkish incursions.
The Ghurids: Muizzuddin Muhammad (Muhammad of Ghur) aimed at territorial conquest. He was defeated in the First Battle of Tarain (1191) by Prithviraj Chauhan but won the Second Battle of Tarain (1192), which led to Turkish rule in the Ganga valley.
Causes of Rajput Defeat: Lack of strategic vision, internal feuds among clans, and a less mobile military organization compared to the Turkish cavalry, which utilized mounted archers and superior organization via the iqta system.
The Delhi Sultanat (1200–1400)
Mameluk Sultans: Iltutmish (1210–36) was the real consolidator. Raziya was the first woman ruler but faced opposition from the 'Forty' (Chahalgani) Turkish nobles.
Balban (1246–87): Formulated the 'Blood and Iron' policy to restore the prestige of the Crown. He crushed the power of the Chahalgani and defended against Mongol inroads using a fortified frontier line (Beas river).
The Khaljis (1290–1320):
Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316): Introduced market control reforms to maintain a large standing army, fixing prices for grain, cloth, and slaves. He conquered Gujarat, Malwa, and launched expeditions into the deep South under Malik Kafur.
Agrarian Reforms: First Sultan to implement measurement (zabit) for revenue collection in the doab and raised state demand to half the produce.
The Tughlaqs (1320–1412):
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1324–51): Known for ambitious but failed experiments: transfer of capital to Daulatabad (Deogir), introduction of bronze token currency, and a failed project for a 'scientific frontier' in the Khurasan expedition. He set up the Diwan-i-Amir-i-Kohi for agricultural development.
Firuz Tughlaq (1351–88): Followed a policy of appeasement toward nobles by making iqtas hereditary. He built canals, hospitals, and established a separate department for slaves.
Timur's Invasion (1398): Looted Delhi and dealt a death blow to the Tughlaq empire, leading to the Sultanat's disintegration into regional states.
The Bahmanis and Vijayanagara (1350–1565)
Vijayanagara: Founded by Harihara and Bukka in 1336. Reached its peak under Krishna Deva Raya (1509–30). Known for its elaborate administrative system (Nayamkara/Palegar) and magnificent architecture (Hampi).
Bahmani Kingdom: Founded by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah (1347). Prime Minister Mahmud Gawan (1463–81) modernized the state but was executed due to noble factionalism, leading to the kingdom splitting into five states (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar).
Conflict: Constant warfare over the Tungabhadra doab and the Krishna-Godavari delta. The states ultimately united to defeat Vijayanagara at the Battle of Bannihatti (1565).
Portuguese Arrival: Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498. The Portuguese, under Albuquerque, captured Goa (1510) and established a naval monopoly in the Indian Ocean through the Cartaze system.
The Mughal Empire (1526–1555: Babur and Humayun)
Babur: Defeated Ibrahim Lodi at the First Battle of Panipat (1526) using artillery and the Ottoman (Rumi) device. He defeated the Rajput confederacy under Rana Sanga at Khanwa (1527).
Humayun: Faced challenges from Bahadur Shah (Gujarat) and Sher Shah Suri (Bihar). He was defeated at Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540) and fled to Iran.
Sher Shah Suri (1540–45): Reshaped the administrative system. He built the Grand Trunk Road, established sarais (inns), and introduced the silver rupee and the ray (crop rate) system for revenue.
Consolidation under Akbar (1556–1605)
Bairam Khan Regency: Defeated Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat (1556).
Expansion: Conquered Malwa, Garh-Katanga (over Rani Durgavati), Chittor (1568), Gujarat (1572), and Bengal (1576).
Administration:
Mansabdari System: Organized the nobility into ranks (zat for status, sawar for cavalry obligation). Mixed contingents to prevent tribalism.
Land Revenue: Developed the Dahsala system—averaging produce and prices of the last 10 years to fix cash demands.
Rajput Policy: Alliance based on mutual trust, high positions in nobility, and matrimonial alliances (without conversion). He won over most Rajas except Rana Pratap of Mewar.
Religious Policy: Abolished jizyah. Built the Ibadat\ Khana for inter-faith debate. Promulgated Tauhid-i-Ilahi, emphasizing Sulh-kul (peace to all).
The Mughal Empire in the 17th Century
Jahangir (1605–27): Settled the Mewar dispute. Nur Jahan played a significant political role. Faced rebellion from Shah Jahan.
Shah Jahan (1628–58): Era of magnificence. Conquered Ahmadnagar (1633). Built the Taj Mahal and the Red Fort. Struggled for Qandhar against the Persians.
Aurangzeb (1658–1707):
Religious Policy: Re-imposed jizyah (1679), destroyed some temples in response to political rebellions, and followed an orthodox Sunni path.
Deccan Conflict: Spent 25 years fighting the Marathas and subduing Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687). The execution of Sambhaji (1689) led to all-pervasive Maratha resistance.
Marathas: Shivaji (1627–80) founded the Maratha state, based on the Ashtapradhan administration and the collection of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi.
Cultural and Economic Review
Architecture: Synthesis of Indian and Turko-Iranian styles. Marble and pietra\ dura inlay became hallmarks.
Painting: Mughal school introduced roundedness and 3D effects, later influencing Rajput and Pahari styles.
Language: Persian was the language of elite/administration, while regional languages (Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Telugu) reached maturity through Bhakti literature.
Economics: Expansion of trade and manufacture (textiles, indigo, saltpetre). Influx of silver led to a doubling of prices in the 17th century. The 'middle strata' of professionals and merchants grew, but wealth remained highly concentrated.
Decline: The crisis of the jagirdari system (shortage of land for nobles), over-extension in the Deccan, and neglect of science/technology led to the empire's rapid disintegration after Aurangzeb's death.