Chapter 12 - Territorial and Economic Expansion

Chapter 12 - Territorial and Economic Expansion

Manifest Destiny and Territorial Expansion

  • Manifest Destiny: A term coined by John O’Sullivan, reflecting the belief that the United States had a divine mission to extend its power and civilization across North America.
  • Expansionist Sentiment (1840s-1850s):
    • Desire to expand westward to the Pacific and southward into Mexico, Cuba, and Central America.
    • By the 1890s, expansionist focus included the acquisition of islands in the Pacific and the Caribbean.
  • Driving Forces behind Expansion:
    • Nationalism
    • Increase in population
    • Rapid economic development
    • Technological advances
    • Reform ideas
  • Opposition to Expansionism:
    • Not all Americans united behind the idea of expansionist policies; critiques focused on various ethical and political implications.
    • Notably, Northern critics argued that expansion was driven by Southern ambitions to spread slavery into new territories.

Conflicts over Expansion

  • Root Causes of Conflict:
    • Disputes over territories like Texas, Maine, and Oregon fueled tensions regarding the expansion.
    • U.S. efforts to push borders South into Texas (a Mexican province) and west into the Oregon Territory (claimed by Britain) were largely driven by American pioneers migrating to these areas in the 1820s and 1830s.

Case Study: Texas

  • Texas and Mexican Independence:
    • After winning independence from Spain in 1823, Mexico sought to attract settlers to Texas, particularly Anglo settlers, for agricultural development.
    • Moses Austin, a Missouri banker, obtained a land grant in Texas but died before recruiting settlers.
    • His son, Stephen Austin, successfully brought 300 families into Texas, initiating a steady migration of American settlers into the region.
  • Demographics:
    • By 1870, American settlers and enslaved individuals (both white and black) outnumbered Mexicans in Texas by 3 to 1.
  • Tensions with Mexico:
    • In 1829, Mexico outlawed slavery and mandated that immigrants convert to Roman Catholicism, leading many settlers to resist and causing Mexico to close Texas to further American immigration.
    • Ignoring prohibitions, American settlers continually moved into Texas, escalating tensions.

Texas Revolution

  • Political Changes in Mexico:
    • In 1834, General Antonio López de Santa Anna established a dictatorship and attempted to enforce Mexico’s laws in Texas, culminating in a rebellion led by American settlers.
  • Declaring Independence:
    • In March 1836, rebels declared Texas an independent republic. Key events included:
    • Battle of the Alamo: Santa Anna defeated a small group of defenders in San Antonio, killing them all.
    • Battle of San Jacinto: Texian army led by Sam Houston surprised and captured Santa Anna, who was compelled to recognize Texas’ independence under duress. Mexico's legislature later rejected this treaty.

Annexation of Texas

  • Request for Annexation:
    • After becoming the first president of the Republic of Texas, Sam Houston sought annexation to the U.S.
    • Presidents Jackson and Van Buren postponed this request due to Northern opposition to the expansion of slavery and fears of war with Mexico.
  • John Tyler’s Role:
    • Tyler, a Southern Whig, sought to annex Texas, but his treaty was rejected by the Senate in 1847.

Oregon Territory Dispute

  • Oregon’s Claims:
    • A territorial dispute involving the claims of four nations: Spain, Russia, Britain, and the United States.
    • Spain ceded its claim under the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819.
  • U.S. Claims:
    • Based on the following:
    • Discovery of the Columbia River by Robert Gray (1792).
    • The Lewis and Clark expedition (1805) to the Pacific Coast.
    • The establishment of a fur trading post by John Jacob Astor in 1811.
    • American settlers moved into the Willamette Valley, leading to increased demands for territorial acquisition, coining the phrase "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" referring to the latitude line.

Political Climate Surrounding Annexation

  • Election of 1844:
    • Key figures:
    • James K. Polk: Democratic nominee known for his commitment to expansionism and the idea of manifest destiny.
    • Henry Clay: Whig nominee who fluctuated his stance on Texas annexation, resulting in loss of support.
    • Polk’s victory reflected popular support for expansion, particularly in the South and West.

Negotiations and Treaties

  • John Tyler’s Joint Resolution:
    • Tyler bypassed the Senate by using a joint resolution for annexation, requiring only a simple majority.
  • Oregon Compromise (1846):
    • Polk agreed to settle the boundary dispute with Britain by dividing the Oregon territory along the 49th parallel, compromising expansionist demands to avoid war with Britain.
  • Consequences of the Mexican-American War:
    • Mexico could not compete militarily from the onset of the war, leading to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848).
    • Terms included:
    • Recognition of the Rio Grande as Texas' southern border.
    • U.S. acquisition of California and New Mexico, referred to as the Mexican Cession, for $15 million.
    • The U.S. agreed to take responsibility for American claims against Mexico.

Wilmot Proviso and Ongoing Controversy

  • Wilmot Proviso: Proposed by Congressman David Wilmot, aimed to prohibit slavery in territories acquired from Mexico, passed the House but defeated in the Senate, reflecting continued sectional divides over slavery.
  • Southern Expansionist Ambitions:
    • Many Southern expansionists sought new territories in Latin America for slave-owning plantations, prominently eyeing Cuba in the 1850s.

Attempts to Acquire Cuba and Other Territories

  • Ostend Manifesto:
    • A proposal by President Pierce to purchase Cuba for $100 million, rejected by Spain, leading to secret negotiations that sparked controversy when leaked.
    • Resulted in backlash from anti-slavery congress members, forcing Pierce to abandon the plan.
  • Walker Expedition:
    • Andrew William Walker made multiple attempts to establish a pro-slavery regime in Central America, including Nicaragua, where he enjoyed temporary U.S. recognition before being defeated and executed.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850)

  • Conflict of Interest:
    • Aimed at establishing a canal through Central America, the treaty prevented both the U.S. and Great Britain from asserting exclusive control over the canal.
    • Ultimately, it remained in effect until replaced by the Hay-Paunceforte Treaty in 1901, which granted the U.S. exclusive rights.

Gadsden Purchase (1853)

  • Acquisition of Land:
    • The U.S. purchased land from Mexico for $10 million, facilitating railroad expansion.

Economic Trends and the Expansionist Mentality Post-Civil War

  • Post-Civil War Dynamics:
    • Post-1865, territorial expansion remained vital in shaping U.S. policies with significant developments such as the acquisition of Alaska under Secretary of State William Seward.

Major Migration Trends

  • Mining Frontier:
    • The California Gold Rush (1848) triggered widespread migration, spawning numerous mining towns and dramatically increasing California’s population.
    • The influx of miners included a diverse demographic, with a distinct influx of Chinese miners.

Farming in the West

  • Homesteading Dynamics:
    • Many pioneer families moved westward to farm, supported by Congressional preemption acts allowing settlers to claim lands cheaply.
  • Settlement Costs and Community Building:
    • The average cost of moving to the frontier ranged from $200 to $300, with parallels drawn to raising rural communities reflective of Eastern institutions.

Impact of Railroads on Expansion

  • Rail Road Growth:
    • Shift away from canals to railroad expansion across the Northeast and Midwest became America’s largest industry.
  • Government Support:
    • The government offered financial incentives and substantial land grants to railroad projects, enhancing links between regions and promoting economic growth.

Foreign Trade Trends

  • Expansion of Trade:
    • Increased exports and imports due to growth in American manufacturing and agriculture, bolstered by regular shipping schedules and advancements in vessel design.

Economic Downturn - Panic of 1857

  • Causes and Effects:
    • Marked by a financial panic that led to price drops and rising unemployment, particularly in Northern cities, while the South remained less affected due to cotton prices remaining high.
    • Southern beliefs in their plantation economy’s superiority grew stronger during this economic crisis.