Psych 251 - Final Study Guide

Use your own words to answer each question in its entirety. The more details you provide the more effective the study guide. You may use your notes and textbook for assistance.

1. Explain epigenetics and how it relates to the nature vs. nurture debate.

Epigenetics is the study of biological mechanisms that switch genes on and off without altering the underlying DNA sequence. Rather than changing the genetic code, epigenetic changes modify the accessibility and readability of DNA to influence gene expression. The epigenome, which consists of various chemical compounds and proteins, can attach to DNA and direct a variety of cellular functions by turning genes on or off. These modifications do not change the DNA sequence but affect how cells "read" genes.

Key epigenetic changes include DNA methylation and histone modification. DNA methylation primarily involves the addition of methyl groups to the DNA molecule, which typically leads to gene silencing. Histone modification refers to the addition or removal of chemical groups to histones, the proteins around which DNA wraps. These modifications can adjust the compaction of DNA and consequently regulate gene expression. Both mechanisms are pivotal in determining cell differentiation and function, and can be influenced by internal and external factors.

The study of epigenetics plays a critical role in nature vs. nurture debate, which discusses the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development. Epigenetics reveals that both genetic and environmental factors are intertwined, as environmental influences can lead to epigenetic changes that affect gene function.

In sum, epigenetics offers a more nuanced understanding of human development, suggesting that both genetic and environmental factors are essential, interdependent influencers of gene expression. The reversibility and heritability of epigenetic changes further accentuate the complexity of the relation between nature and nurture, aligning more closely with current views that embrace the contributions of both genetic disposition and environmental exposure in shaping an individual's traits and health.

2. What are the three domains of human development? Explain the 3 domains in your own words.

Human development has three major domains: physical development, cognitive development, and social-emotional development. Each domain plays a crucial role in shaping an individual's growth and well-being. These domains are interconnected, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of human development.

Physical development refers to the biological changes that occur in the body and brain, encompassing growth in size and strength, sensory and motor skill integration, and the development of fine and gross motor skills. Progressive changes in height, weight, and muscular strength, as well as the integration of sensory and motor activities, shape the trajectory of physical development. This multifaceted domain also spans various aspects, such as puberty, sexual health, fertility, and nutrition and exercise habits that contribute to overall physical well-being.

The cognitive domain of human development relates to how individuals think, understand, and reason about the world. Cognitive development involves memory, learning new information, problem-solving, and creative. It is a process of acquiring knowledge and skills in different areas such as math, science, and social studies, and is closely connected to brain development and learning. Cognitive development unfolds through distinct stages, as proposed by Jean Piaget, covering the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages, each characterized by unique cognitive abilities and modes of thinking.

Social-emotional development refers to the changes in the way individuals connect to others and express and understand emotions. It encompasses the development of empathy, establishing and maintaining relationships, and being able to identify and understand one's own feelings as well as those of others. This domain starts from the early stages of forming attachments to caregivers and progresses into navigating relationships with peers, teachers, and the broader community. The process involves building self-awareness, recognizing and expressing emotions, and developing adaptive social behaviors.

​The three domains of human development represent fundamental facets of growth and maturation, shaping individuals' physical well-being, cognitive abilities, and social-emotional skills. These domains are intertwined and contribute to an individual's overall development, offering a comprehensive understanding of human growth and change.

3. According to Urie Brnfenbrenner, what are the various context that impact human development?

Urie Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory posits that an individual's development is influenced by a series of interconnected environmental systems, ranging from the immediate surroundings to broad societal structures. These systems include the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem, each representing different levels of environmental influences on an individual's growth and behavior. The microsystem is considered the most influential level, encompassing the most immediate environmental settings containing the developing individual, such as family and school.

The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory and encompasses the things that have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment. It includes the child's most immediate relationships and environments, such as parents, siblings, classmates, teachers, and neighbors. The interactions the child has with these people and environments directly impact development, making it a highly influential system.

The mesosystem involves interactions between different microsystems in the child's life, where a person's microsystems do not function independently but are interconnected and exert influence upon one another. This can involve interactions between parents and teachers or interactions between peers and family, which can shape the child's development.

The exosystem incorporates other formal and informal social structures, which influence microsystems indirectly. It includes influences like a parent's job, local educational decisions, government policies, and community resources. On the other hand, the macro system focuses on how cultural elements affect a child's development, consisting of cultural ideologies, attitudes, and social conditions in which children are immersed. This includes beliefs about gender roles, family structures, and socio-economic impacts.

The chronosystem relates to shifts and transitions over the child's lifetime, including environmental changes, historical events, and physical and cognitive changes as children grow older. These transitions interact with shifting social expectations and can significantly impact a child's development.

The ecological systems theory has been used to link psychological and educational theory to early educational curriculums and practice. This perspective supports the importance of good communication between teachers and parents, a child's active participation in learning, and the interplay between microsystems and school environments.

4. What is the psychoanalytic perspective on human development? Who was a contributor of this perspective? What are the psychosexual stages of development?

The psychoanalytic perspective on human development, initially introduced by Sigmund Freud, involves the examination of the impact of early childhood experiences, unconscious conflicts, and neurobiological processes on personality development. Freud's Psychosexual Theory forms the foundation of the psychoanalytic perspective, emphasizing that human development progresses through distinct stages, propelling the individual's personality.

Significant contributors to the psychoanalytic perspective on human development include Sigmund Freud, Hermann Rorschach, Anna Freud, Erik Erikson, Erich Fromm, Carl Jung, Karl Abraham, Otto Rank, John Bowlby, Melanie Klein, Karen Horney, and Sabina Spielrein.

According to Freud's psychosexual theory, human development unfolds through five distinct stages:

1. Oral Stage: Birth to 1 year, focused on the mouth as the primary source of pleasure.

2. Anal Stage: 1 to 3 years, characterized by the libido focusing on the anus, influenced by toilet training.

3. Phallic Stage: 3 to 6 years, when the child's libido becomes focused on the genitals, leading to the Oedipus and Electra complexes.

4. Latency Stage: 6 years to puberty, involving a period of relatively dormant sexual feelings, focusing on social and intellectual development.

5. Genital Stage: Puberty to adulthood, marks the re-emergence of the libido, maturing into adult sexuality and intimate relationships3 . The individual explores sexual feelings and desires more maturely and responsibly during this stage.

5. Who was John Watson? What was his perspective and contribution to understanding human development? (Mention his study).

John Watson and Behaviorism

John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) was an American psychologist who is widely considered the "Father of Behaviorism". He played a pivotal role in developing and popularizing the behaviorist perspective in psychology.

Watson's Perspective on Human Development

Watson's approach to human development was heavily influenced by his belief in behaviorism. He was not interested in studying the impact of internal factors such as genetic influences and the workings of the mind. Instead, he focused solely on observable behavior and the role of the environment in shaping it.

According to Watson, the environment is the most important factor in determining a person's personality, abilities, and other qualities. He believed that all behavior is learned through events and situations within the environment, rejecting the idea of innate or inherited factors. Watson advocated for the scientific and objective observation of behavior, considering that even complex behaviors can be reduced to simple stimulus-response associations.

The "Little Albert" Experiment

Watson is well-known for his controversial "Little Albert" experiment, which demonstrated the principles of classical conditioning in humans.

In this study, Watson and his graduate student, Rosalie Rayner, conditioned a 9-month-old infant named "Little Albert" to fear a white rat. They accomplished this by repeatedly pairing the presentation of the white rat with a loud, startling noise, causing the child to become distressed and fearful of the rat.

Furthermore, Watson and Rayner were able to demonstrate that this fear could be generalized to other furry, white objects, such as a rabbit, a dog, and a Santa Claus mask.

The "Little Albert" experiment was a landmark study that advanced the understanding of fear conditioning and the role of the environment in shaping emotional responses in human development.

However, the experiment was also highly controversial and is considered unethical by modern standards, as it caused distress to a young child without attempting to reverse the conditioned fear response.

Watson's Legacy

Watson's work laid the foundation for behaviorism, which became the dominant approach in American psychology during the 1920s and 1930s. His emphasis on the environmental control of observable behavior, rather than internal mental processes, had a significant influence on various fields, including psychology, education, and child-rearing practices.

Despite the ethical concerns surrounding the "Little Albert" experiment, Watson's contributions to the study of human behavior and development were substantial and continue to be recognized in the field of psychology.

6. Who was Ivan Pavlov? What was his perspective and contribution to understanding human development? (Mention his study).

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov was a Russian physiologist, best known for his discovery of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs. Born on September 14, 1849, in Ryazan, Russia, Pavlov made significant contributions that revolutionized our understanding of learning, behavior, and human development. His in-depth study of the digestive systems of dogs and his groundbreaking work earned him the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in, highlighting the profound impact of his research on scientific and psychological understanding.

Pavlov's Perspective on Human Development

Pavlov's perspective on human development was primarily influenced by his theory of classical conditioning, which proposed that behaviors could be learned through the association between different stimuli. His experiments with dogs demonstrated that neutral stimuli could become associated with reflex responses, providing insight into how individuals learn, adapt, and respond to environmental stimuli. Pavlov's work had a profound impact on the growing behaviorist movement in psychology, emphasizing the importance of conditioning in human behavior and setting the foundation for further research into human development and behavior. His detailed experiments and publications brought the concept of conditioned reflexes to the forefront of scientific exploration, significantly impacting the understanding of reflexes and behavioral responses.

In particular, Pavlov's observations led to the formulation of the concept of the conditioned reflex, which he famously demonstrated in his experiments, conditioning dogs to salivate at the sound of a tone associated with the presentation of food. This groundbreaking study illustrated how the pairing of stimuli could shape and elicit specific responses, with direct implications for psychology, human development, and learning theories. His research provided critical evidence for the influence of environmental stimuli on behavior and psychopathology, opening up new avenues of study and understanding in the field of human development and behavior.

7. Who was B. F. Skinner? What was his perspective and contribution to understanding human development? (Mention his study).

Early Life and Career of B. F. Skinner

Burrhus Frederic Skinner, known as B. F. Skinner, was born on March 20, 1904, in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania. Initially pursuing a career in writing, Skinner later turned to psychology and enrolled at Harvard University, where he earned his Ph.D. in psychology in 1931. Throughout his academic trajectory, he held positions at the University of Minnesota, Indiana University, and finally Harvard, where he became a prominent professor. Skinner was also known for his inventive nature, creating devices like the "Skinner box" or the operant conditioning chamber, which became a cornerstone in the study of behaviorism.

Skinner's Perspective on Human Development

​Skinner's approach to human development was deeply rooted in behaviorism, which focused on the observable behavior and its environmental determinants rather than internal mental states. He developed the concept of operant conditioning, positing that behavior is shaped by its consequences—reinforcements and punishments. He asserted that behaviors followed by positive outcomes tend to be strengthened, while those followed by negative outcomes are likely to be weakened.

Skinner Box Study and Contributions to Psychology

One of Skinner's seminal contributions was the "Skinner Box," an apparatus he meticulously crafted to research the patterns of behavior in animals, primarily rats and pigeons. In these experiments, subjects learned to press a lever to obtain food, which provided empirical evidence for operant conditioning. This work elucidated the fundamental principles of reinforcement and how different schedules (e.g., fixed or variable ratios) affected response rates and extinction rates. Such studies had broader implications for understanding habit formation and the influence of reinforcements and punishments on both animal and human behaviors.

Lasting Impact on Human Developmental Understanding

Skinner's research in operant conditioning significantly impacted the understanding of human development. His findings contributed to the field's knowledge of how behavior can be modified via reinforcement. Furthermore, Skinner's development of reinforcement schedules helped explain the nuances of habit formation and behavior change. Skinner's works, including "The Behavior of Organisms" and "Science and Human Behavior," have made him one of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, with an approach that has had long-lasting implications in educational systems, therapy, and beyond.

Through his operant conditioning framework, Skinner presented a profound understanding of human development, emphasizing the role of environmental factors in shaping behaviors, which could be explored through his invented apparatus, the "Skinner Box". This mechanistic view of learning and behavior underscored the importance of reinforcement and its schedules in guiding and maintaining both animal and human actions.

8. Who was Albert Bandura? What was his perspective and contribution to understanding human development? (Mention his study).

Albert Bandura, born on December 4, 1925, in Mundare, Alberta, Canada, and passed away on July 26, 2021, was a renowned Canadian-American psychologist, known for his significant contributions to the field of human development. He developed the influential social cognitive theory, which emphasized the importance of observing, imitating, and modeling behaviors in the learning process. Through his pioneering work on social learning theory, Bandura highlighted that learning occurs through observation and interaction with the environment, incorporating cognitive and environmental factors. 

His Bobo doll experiments, which demonstrated that children can learn behaviors through observing aggressive actions, were particularly groundbreaking and transformative for the field of psychology. Bandura's study of reciprocal determinism, which integrated a continuous interaction between behaviors, cognitions, and the environment, also provided a profound framework for understanding human development, the influence of social modeling on behavior, and the factors that shape learning and change.

Through his Bobo doll studies, Bandura laid the foundation for understanding the impact of social modeling on human development, demonstrating that children can learn and imitate aggressive behavior observed in adults. This not only challenged established behavioral doctrine, but it also revealed how observational learning, influenced by factors such as attention, motivation, attitudes, and emotions, plays a crucial role in understanding human development. Bandura's work has had a far-reaching influence on personality psychology, cognitive psychology, education, and psychotherapy, providing valuable insights into how people learn and change throughout their lives.

Moreover, Bandura's research extended beyond academia, as he applied his findings to create programs focusing on family planning, social injustice, climate change, and protecting against HIV/AIDS. These applications of his research led to real-world impacts and long-lasting social change, illustrating the practical implications of his work for addressing significant societal issues. Bandura's legacies also extended to adjusting the standards for televised depictions of activities performed by children and changing the impact of social modeling, which led to the passing of new televised advertising standards. His emphasis on reciprocal determinism and the importance of personal agency brought about a paradigm shift in understanding human development and behavior and revolutionized the field of psychology. Therefore, through his groundbreaking work, Bandura's contributions to understanding human development and behavior remain invaluable, and his influence in this field is enduring and far-reaching.

9. Who was Jean Piaget? What was his perspective and contribution to understanding human development? (Mention his study).

Jean Piaget, a prominent Swiss psychologist, was born on August 9, 1896, in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. His childhood interest in science, particularly in the natural sciences, can be attributed to his early neurotic tendencies, as noted by his mother, Rebecca Jackson. His father, Arthur, a medieval literature professor, played a vital role in kindling Piaget's passion for dedicated studies1 . His fascination with mollusks led to his early scientific endeavors, including the publication of papers on the topic, gradually establishing him as an expert.

Education and Academic Development

Piaget pursued higher education in zoology at the University of Neuchâtel, completing his Ph.D. in natural sciences in 1918. The strides in his academic career were further facilitated by his exposure to psychology under the tutelage of renowned psychologists such as Carl Jung and Paul Eugen Bleuler at the University of Zürich and Sorbonne in Paris. These experiences sparked his deepening interest in psychology.

Groundbreaking Psychological Work

Piaget made groundbreaking contributions to the field of child psychology through his identification of four stages of mental development and genetic epistemology. In collaboration with Théodore Simon and at the Alfred Binet Laboratory in Paris, Piaget evaluated standardized reasoning tests for measuring child intelligence, which led to new questions about the process of children's learning. He concluded that children's logic is fundamentally different from that of adults and that factual knowledge should not be equated with intelligence or understanding.

Perspective on Human Development

His perspective on human development is underscored by the genetic epistemology theory, which deals with the gradual acquisition of knowledge in humans. He emphasized the progression of knowledge as a progressive construction of logically embedded structures, superseding one another through a process of including lower less powerful logical means into higher and more powerful ones up to adulthood. Piaget's notable study revealed that children think and develop cognitively in four distinct stages, known as the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.

Contribution to Understanding Human Development

Jean Piaget's notable contribution to understanding human development is his pioneering work in child psychology and his development of Piaget's theory of cognitive development. The theory outlined the stages of intellectual growth and chronicled young people's journeys from basic object identification to highly abstract thought. His theory revolutionized the understanding of children's cognitive development, emphasizing that children's thinking processes differ from those of adults. This insight has influenced developmental psychology, educational practices, and our overall understanding of child psychology. His ideas have significantly shaped the fields of sociology, education, and genetics, contributing to our understanding of the cognitive development of children.

10. Define and provide an example of an independent variable and dependent variable

In research, variables refer to characteristics that can take on different values, such as height, age, temperature, or test scores. These variables are often manipulated or measured to test cause-and-effect relationships. The independent variable is the cause and its value is independent of other variables in the study. On the other hand, the dependent variable is the effect, and its value depends on changes in the independent variable.

Independent Variable

The independent variable is the variable manipulated or varied in an experimental study to explore its effects. It’s called "independent" because it’s not influenced by any other variables in the study. It’s also known as an explanatory or predictor variable and appears on the right-hand side of a regression equation in statistics. An example of an independent variable could be the type of soda consumed (diet or regular) in an experiment to observe its effect on the level of blood sugar measured.

Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is the variable that changes as a result of the independent variable manipulation. It’s what researchers are interested in measuring, and it "depends" on the independent variable. In essence, the dependent variable is the presumed effect in a cause-and-effect relationship. An example of a dependent variable could be the level of blood sugar, which changes depending on the type of soda consumed (diet or regular) as the independent variable.

Example

For example, consider a research question such as: "Do tomatoes grow fastest under fluorescent, incandescent, or natural light?" In this case, the independent variable would be the type of light, and the dependent variable would be the growth rate of the tomatoes. Such an experiment seeks to understand the influence of different types of light on the growth of tomatoes, where the growth rate of the tomatoes is the dependent variable that responds to the changes in the independent variables.