The Global Tapestry and Developments in East Asia (c. 1200 to c. 1450)

Regional Context and the Global Tapestry (c. $1200$ to c. $1450$)

• Emperors and States: Between the years $1200$ and $1450$, the world witnessed the emergence of large empires, some of which were revisions of older states while others were entirely new developments.

• Trade Context: These political entities were fundamentally shaped by regional trade, which had been on an upward trajectory since approximately $600$.

• Wealth and Innovation: The Song Dynasty in China stood as the wealthiest and most innovative empire of the period, representing a long history of unified, prosperous Chinese states.

• The Americas: Mesoamerican development saw the rise of the Aztecs, who were heavily influenced by the earlier Mayan civilization.

• Intellectual Hubs: Baghdad and Spain served as primary centers of intellectual achievement, driven by the Islamic emphasis on learning.

• Growth in Africa and Asia: Increased regional trade led to larger, more complex states. Trans-Saharan trade fueled the West African empires of Ghana and Mali. Indian Ocean trade supported Great Zimbabwe in East Africa and various kingdoms in India and Southeast Asia.

• The Mongol Influence: The Mongols, nomadic groups from Central Asia, created the largest land empire in human history, stretching from central Europe to the Pacific. Despite the devastation caused by their conquests, their unified rule allowed Eurasian trade to flourish, facilitating the spread of technology and ideas that prepared the world for post-$1450$ global interactions.

Developments in East Asia

• Song Dynasty Government ($960-1279$): The Song replaced the Tang in $960$. Although they lost northern lands to the Jin Empire (Manchurian pastoralists), their reign was a "golden age" for arts and prosperity.

• Imperial Bureaucracy: A vast organization of appointed officials carried out imperial policies. This system was a continuity reaching back to the Qin Dynasty ($221-207\text{ B.C.E.}$).

• Meritocracy and Civil Service Exams: Emperor Song Taizu expanded educational access to lower-class men to allow them to take civil service exams. Obtaining a bureaucratic position required demonstrating merit via knowledge of Confucian texts. While the poor were still underrepresented, this provided more upward mobility than any other contemporary system.

• Bureaucratic Bloat: By the end of the Song, the bureaucracy became too large and expensive, drying up China's surplus wealth through high salaries and the sheer number of positions created.

• Inland Infrastructure: The Grand Canal was a waterway system extending over $30,000\text{ miles}$, making China the most populous trading area globally.

• Gunpowder and Weaponry: While invented earlier, the Song were the first to create guns. This technology spread via the Silk Roads to all of Eurasia.

• Agricultural Innovations:

  • Champa Rice: A fast-ripening, drought-resistant strain from the Champa Kingdom (Vietnam) allowed farming in formerly unusable lowlands and hills. It permitted two crops per year (summer and winter).

  • Techniques: Farmers used human and animal manure to enrich soil, built elaborate irrigation systems (ditches, water wheels, pumps, and terraces), and employed heavy plows pulled by water buffalo or oxen.

  • Demographic Shift: China's population grew from $25\%$ to nearly $40\%$ of the global total during the Song era.

• Manufacturing and Metallurgy:

  • Coal and Steel: Discovery of "black earth" (coal) in the $4^{th}\text{ century B.C.E.}$ allowed massive production of cast iron. By removing carbon from iron, the Chinese manufactured steel for bridges, gates, ship anchors, and religious items (pagodas and Buddhist figurines).

  • Proto-industrialization: A phase where rural residents produced more goods than they could sell. Unlike factory-based industrialization, it relied on home-based production using simple equipment.

  • Porcelain: Highly desired for being lightweight, strong, and light-colored for painted designs.

• Commercial Society: China transitioned from local consumption to market production, with tea, textiles, and porcelain as chief exports. Tax policies changed from requiring labor to paying for public projects, increasing currency circulation.

• Tributary System: Other states paid money or goods to the Chinese emperor. Representatives performed the kowtow (a ritual bow to the floor). The system ensured stability and trade. Famous fleets led by Zheng He were sent to collect tribute and demonstrate power.

• Social Structure:

  • Scholar Gentry: A new class created by bureaucratic expansion; they were educated in Confucian philosophy and eventually outnumbered the traditional land-owning aristocracy.

  • Other Classes: Below the scholar gentry were farmers, artisans, and merchants. Merchants held low status because they did not produce anything new, merely exchanging goods produced by others.

  • Patriarchy and Foot Binding: Common among aristocratic families, girls' feet were wrapped so tightly the bones did not grow naturally. Bound feet signaled social status and restricted movement, limiting women's participation in the public sphere.

• Culture and Religion:

  • Printing: Invention of paper ($2^{nd}\text{ century C.E.}$) and woodblock printing ($7^{th}\text{ century C.E.}$) allowed for the mass production of literature and agricultural booklets.

  • Buddhism: Came from India via the Silk Roads. Popularized in the $7^{th}$ century by the monk Xuanzang.

    • Theravada: Focused on personal spiritual growth through meditation (Southeast Asia).

    • Mahayana: Focused on service and spiritual growth for all (China, Korea).

    • Tibetan: Focused on chanting (Tibet).

  • Chan/Zen Buddhism: A syncretic faith combining Buddhist doctrines with Daoist principles (e.g., dharma translated as dao). It emphasized direct experience over scripture.

  • Neo-Confucianism: A syncretic system beginning c. $770-840$, combining rational thought with abstract ideas from Daoism and Buddhism. It emphasized ethics over mysteries of God and nature.

Developments in Dar al-Islam

• Abbasid Challenges ($1100s-1200s$):

  • Egyptian Mamluks: Enslaved ethnic Turks from Central Asia serving as soldiers/bureaucrats who seized power to form the Mamluk Sultanate ($1250-1517$).

  • Seljuk Turks: Central Asian Muslims who conquered Baghdad and parts of the Middle East. The leader took the title "Sultan," reducing the Abbasid Caliph to a figurehead religious authority.

  • The Crusades: Organized by European Christians to reopen access to Jerusalem after the Seljuks limited travel.

  • Mongols: Conquered the Abbasid Empire in $1258$ and ended Seljuk rule.

• Baghdad's Decay: Baghdad lost its central trade role as patterns shifted north. The city lost wealth and population, leads to decaying canals and food shortages.

• Cultural Continuities: Scholars preserved Greek classics (Aristotle) by translating them to Arabic, studied Indian mathematics, and adopted Chinese paper-making techniques.

• Innovations:

  • Nasir al-Din al-Tusi ($1201-1274$): Contributed to astronomy, law, logic, medicine, and mathematics. Built a world-leading observatory and established trigonometry as a separate subject.

  • Ibn Khaldun ($1332-1406$): Founded historiography and sociology.

  • 'A'ishah al-Ba'uniyyah ($1460-1507$): Prolific female poet; her work reflected mystical Sufi themes.

• Sufism: Emphasized introspection to grasp truths beyond learning. Sufi missionaries were highly successful at making converts because they adapted to local customs.

• Class and Commerce: Merchants were prestigious (the Prophet Muhammad was a merchant). Slavery was permitted but Muslims could not enslave other Muslims, Jews, Christians, or Zoroastrians. Many slaves were imported from Africa or Kievan Rus.

• Status of Women: Muhammad improved status by insisting dowries be paid to the bride and forbidding female infanticide. Islamic women could inherit property, remarry if widowed, and initiate divorce in some cases. However, the rise of towns led to restrictions like the veil and the harem.

• Al-Andalus (Spain): Cordoba was designated as the capital in $711$. Despite the loss at the Battle of Tours in $732$, Muslims ruled for seven centuries. It was a center of learning where Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Maimonides blended Greek logic with religious interpretation.

Developments in South and Southeast Asia

• Political Disunity: Following the fall of the Gupta Empire in $550$, India was rarely united.

• Southern India:

  • Chola Dynasty ($850-1267$): Extended rule to Ceylon (Sri Lanka).

  • Vijayanagara Empire ($1336-1646$): Founded by brothers Harihara and Bukka from the Delhi Sultanate. They were born Hindu, converted to Islam, then returned to Hinduism to establish their own kingdom.

• Northern India:

  • Rajput Kingdoms: Hindu clans frequently at war; lack of centralization made them vulnerable to Muslim attacks.

  • Delhi Sultanate ($13^{th}-16^{th}\text{ centuries}$): Conquered Delhi and much of northern India. They imposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims. They lacked an efficient bureaucracy, making policies difficult to enforce. They defended India from the Mongols but were eventually replaced by the Mughals in $1526$.

• Religion and Society: Islam was monotheistic and egalitarian, contrasting with the polytheistic and hierarchical caste-based Hinduism. Most converts to Islam were low-caste Hindus or Buddhists.

• Language and Architecture: Urdu developed as a blend of Hindi, Arabic, and Farsi. The Qutub Minar in Delhi stands as a symbol of Islamic dominance, built over a Hindu temple.

• Bhakti Movement: A Hindu mystical movement focused on emotion and personal attachment to a deity (e.g., Mira Bai). Like Sufism, it did not discriminate against low status or women.

• Southeast Asian Kingdoms:

  • Srivijaya Empire ($670-1025$): Hindu, sea-based kingdom in Sumatra; prospered by charging fees for ships between India and China.

  • Majapahit Kingdom ($1293-1520$): Buddhist, sea-based kingdom in Java.

  • Sinhala Dynasties: Located in Sri Lanka; became a center of Buddhist study with monarchy-monk cooperation.

  • Khmer Empire ($802-1431$): Also known as the Angkor Kingdom; land-based power with advanced irrigation and drainage near the Mekong River. Capital Angkor Thom and the temple Angkor Wat reflect the syncretic blend of Hindu and Buddhist artwork.

Developments in the Americas

• Mississippian Culture ($700s-800s$): Located in the Mississippi River Valley; built massive earthen mounds (Cahokia in Illinois). They had a rigid class structure ruled by the "Great Sun" and a matrilineal society (status passed through the woman's side).

• Southwest Innovations: The Chaco built multi-room stone/clay structures; Mesa Verde people built homes into cliffs using sandstone. Both declined in the late $13^{th}$ century due to drought.

• Mayan City-States ($250-900\text{ C.E.}$): Each city-state was ruled by a king. Fought for tribute and captives for human sacrifice. Invented the concept of zero, a complex writing system, and made rubber. Priests used observatories like Chichen Itza to create a calendar more accurate than Europe's.

• Aztec (Mexicas): Founded Tenochtitlan on an island in $1325$. Developed floating gardens called chinampas to increase food production.

  • Government: A theocracy ruled by the "Great Speaker." Functioned on a tribute system (food, luxury goods, labor) enforced through local rulers.

  • Religion: Pantheon of hundreds of deities with male/female aspects. Practiced frequent human sacrifice as repayment to gods who sacrificed themselves to create the world.

  • Decline: Low technology (no wheel/pack animals) and resentment from tribute-paying tribes who joined the Spanish in $1519$.

• Incan Empire ($1438$): Founded by Pachacuti; stretched from Ecuador to Chile.

  • Organization: Split into four provinces with distinct bureaucracies. Used the mit'a system (mandatory public service) instead of tribute.

  • Religion: Inti (the sun god) was paramount. Practiced royal ancestor veneration (mummified rulers kept their property). Included animism (belief in huaca—physical objects with supernatural power).

  • Technology: Quipu (knotted strings for records), terrace farming (waru waru—raised beds with water channels), and the Carpa Nan ($25,000\text{ miles}$ of roads).

Developments in Africa

• Political Structure: Sub-Saharan Africa often used kin-based networks where families governed themselves via a male chief. Inlands were more decentralized than the coastal kingdoms.

• Hausa Kingdoms: Seven states loosely connected by kinship in modern Nigeria; lacked central authority and were prone to outside domination.

• West African Empires:

  • Ghana ($8^{th}-11^{th}\text{ centuries}$): Sold gold and ivory to Muslims for salt, copper, and cloth. Ruled from Koumbi Saleh with iron weapons.

  • Mali: Founded by Sundiata, a Muslim ruler who leveraged faith for trade. His successor Mansa Musa was famous for his gold-laden pilgrimage to Mecca.

• East Africa:

  • Zimbabwe: Prosperity based on gold and Indian Ocean trade ports (Mombasa, Kilwa). Famous for "Great Zimbabwe," a massive stone wall built without mortar. Swahili language emerged here (Bantu-Arabic blend).

  • Ethiopia: The kingdom of Axum became a Christian island. Rulers built $11$ massive churches carved from solid rock. Ethiopian Christianity independently blended ancestor veneration and spirit beliefs.

• Slavery: Existed in several forms (chattel, domestic, debt). The Zanj Rebellion ($869-883$) was a major revolt of enslaved Africans in Mesopotamia who captured Basra for ten years.

• Culture: Literature was purely oral, preserved by griots (and griottes for women's empowerment). They held the community's history and were both feared and respected.

Developments in Europe

• Feudalism: A decentralized exchange system: Monarchs gave fiefs (land) to lords, who became vassals; lords gave land to knights (vassals); lords provided land/protection to peasants (serfs). Serfs were tied to the land and required permission to travel or marry.

• Manorial System: Economic self-sufficiency on large estates. Innovations like the three-field system and heavy plows increased food production.

• Centralizing Monarchies:

  • France: Philip IV established the Estates-General (Clergy, Nobility, Commoners), but it lacked real power as the upper estates weren't taxed.

  • Holy Roman Empire: Otto I crowned in $962$. Disputed the "lay investiture" (whether secular leaders or the pope could appoint bishops) until the Concordat of Worms ($1122$).

  • Normans: William the Conqueror invaded England in $1066$. In $1215$, nobles forced King John to sign the Magna Carta (limiting royal power). The first Parliament formed in $1265$.

• Conflict and Religion: The Roman Catholic Church dominated life and education. The Great Schism ($1054$) split the church into Roman Catholic and Orthodox.

• The Crusades ($1095-1200s$): Military campaigns to reclaim the Holy Land. The First Crusade won Jerusalem, but Saladin's forces retook it in $1187$. The Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople.

• Social and Economic Change:

  • Marco Polo's travels to Kublai Khan's court in China sparked European curiosity.

  • The Black Death killed $1/3$ of the population, giving surviving serfs more bargaining power.

  • The Little Ice Age (c. $1300$) reduced crops and increased social unrest and antisemitism.

• Renaissance: Revival of interest in Greek/Roman classics. Johannes Gutenberg's printing press ($1439$) revolutionized literacy. Humanism focused on individuals rather than God.

• Russia: Kievan Rus (based in Kiev) was the trade center until the Mongols took over. Ivan the Great later established independence from the Mongols in the late $15^{th}$ century.

Comparison of State-Building ($1200-1450$)

• Trends: Civilizations grew larger; nomadic influence (like the Mongols) initially increased trade stability but eventually waned as merchant companies grew.

• Role of Religion: Islam unified populations through the Arabic language; Song China used Confucianism to run its bureaucracy; Europe's Catholic Church provided a structure that both supported and rivaled emerging monarchs.

• State-Building via Trade: Cross-cultural exchanges spread Champa rice to China and paper-making from China to Europe. Mongol dominance provided the stability for these first direct contacts between Europe and China since the classical era.

Questions & Discussion

• Evidence and Historical Perspective: The development of gunpowder is debated. While British officer Henry Hime argued in $1904$ that China lacked the genius for it, modern scholars like Joseph Needham proved that the Chinese developed the first gun and used gunpowder for far more than simple fireworks.

• Comparison Prompt: A common exercise is comparing modern state formation, such as the theocratic Aztec system versus the administrative Incan mit'a system.

• Intercultural Knowledge: The writings of Marco Polo demonstrate the perspective shifts of Europeans seeing advanced Asian practices like paper money, daily bathing, and burning coal for heat (described as "burning black stones").

Song China in SPICE Format

• Social Interaction and Organizations:

  • The Song Dynasty (960-1279) emphasized a bureaucratic system based on meritocracy, with civil service exams open to educated men of various social backgrounds, though still underrepresented.

  • Scholar gentry emerged as a distinct social class, educated in Confucian philosophy, impacting governance and social structure.

• Political and Governance:

  • The Song government relied on a vast bureaucracy that implemented policies through appointed officials. This system evolved from the earlier Qin Dynasty (221-207 B.C.E.).

  • The need to consolidate power led to the creation of a centralized government, which also faced challenges such as bureaucratic bloat as the empire expanded.

• Interactions between Humans and Environment:

  • Agricultural innovations, such as Champa rice and advancements in irrigation, allowed for increased food production and supported a population growth that climbed to nearly 40% of the global total.

  • The Grand Canal facilitated trade and transport, linking various regions of China and influencing local economies.

• Cultural Development and Interaction:

  • Confucianism influenced governance by emphasizing morality, social harmony, and a hierarchical relationship between rulers and subjects.

  • Buddhism arrived in China via the Silk Roads, leading to cultural synthesis with local beliefs, emphasizing meditation and enlightenment alongside Confucian values.

• Economic Systems:

  • The Song Dynasty saw a transition from local economies to market production, characterized by increased currency circulation and a focus on trade in goods such as textiles and porcelain.

  • The tributary system solidified China’s economic relationships with neighboring states, promoting stability and demonstrating imperial power.

Influence of Confucianism

• Confucianism shaped the political system by promoting an administration based on merit rather than nobility and encouraging values such as loyalty, filial piety, and respect for authority in society.

• Its principles were foundational to Chinese ethics, impacting family life, education, and social hierarchy.

Arrival of Buddhism in China

• Buddhism originated in India and reached China along trade routes. It brought cultural diversity, introduced new philosophies, and interacted with pre-existing Daoist and Confucian ideas.

• Buddhist monastic communities contributed to social services and education, influencing the arts, architecture, and literature in Chinese society.

Impact of the Grand Canal

• The Grand Canal was vital for economic expansion, connecting agricultural and urban centers, enabling the efficient transportation of goods, and allowing the Song to maintain central control over its vast territories.

• It facilitated trade not just within China but with neighboring regions, enhancing cultural and economic exchange.

Innovations in Textiles and Porcelain

• The Song Dynasty perfected porcelain production, leading to its worldwide admiration.

• The textile industry evolved with advancements in weaving and dyeing techniques, reinforcing China’s position in global trade.

Islam in Early Societies

• Islamic beliefs and practices emphasized monotheism, charity, and community, with the Five Pillars guiding personal conduct and societal obligations.

• Cultural aspects included the integration of local customs into Islamic practices, illustrating a dynamic interplay of tradition and faith.

The Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258)

• Social Interaction: Prominent for its cultural tolerance and flourishing trade; scholars from various backgrounds contributed to knowledge.

• Political Governance: The Abbasid Caliphate was a centralized government that emphasized Islamic law, yet allowed local rulers some autonomy.

• Interactions with Environment: The Abbasids developed agricultural techniques suitable for diverse climates across their empire, impacting trade routes.

• Cultural Development: The caliphate was notable for its contributions to arts and sciences, heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, leading to advancements in many fields.

• Economic Systems: Wealth flowed from trade networks, with innovations like banking and credit systems facilitating commerce.

The Seljuk Empire (1037-1194)

• Social Interaction: The Seljuks consolidated power through military prowess yet maintained cultural diversity through tolerance.

• Political Governance: The empire was characterized by a decentralized administration, where local leaders exerted considerable control.

• Interactions with Environment: The empire’s expansion led to agricultural innovations due to an increased demand for resources.

• Cultural Development: Persian culture flourished under Seljuk rule, blending with Turkic traditions to shape new societal norms.

• Economic Systems: Control of trade routes between Europe and Asia enhanced their economic standing.

Causes and Effects of Muslim Expansion

• Causes: Military conquests, trade expansion, and the spread of Islamic teachings through missionary activities facilitated the rise of Islam.

• Effects: The rapid growth of Islamic states resulted in increased cultural exchanges, advancements in sciences, and the establishment of a shared intellectual tradition across diverse regions.

Intellectual Innovations in Muslim States

• Innovations included advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, rooted in previous knowledge from various cultures including Greek and Indian traditions.

• These innovations had lasting impacts, influencing European thought during the Renaissance and shaping Islamic identity.

Significance of the House of Wisdom

• The House of Wisdom in Baghdad was a major intellectual center where scholars translated and preserved Greek texts and accumulated knowledge in fields like mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.

• It symbolized the Abbasid commitment to learning and knowledge sharing, influencing educational practices across the Islamic world and beyond.