Period 8
American Society and Politics After the War
Period of inflation due to sharp flood of consumer demand since many consumer goods were unavailale duringt the war and workers had saved up money ready to spend
GI Bill (Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of 1944):
Assist veterans transition back to civilian life with education opportunities and loans to purchase houses including free college tuition + fixed low government backed interest rates and loans
Further increased consumer spending
Labor:
Labor unrest with major strikes starting up agin in automobile, electrical, and steel industries
With many veterans returning home and seeking jobs, employers pushed out minorities like women, African Americans, Hispanics, Chinese, etc. out of plants to make room for white men—many forced out of the workforce to return
Growing divorce rates → high demand for women employment and as women were exluded from indutrial jobs, they moved to jobs in other areas of the economy especially the service sector
Origins of the Cold War
Sources of Soviet-American Tension
Differing Postwar visions-
Based on the Atlantic Charter (1941) America wanted to abandon military alliances and spheres of influence/imperialism, with an international organization to manage disputes and protect self-determination
Soviet Union wanted to create spheres of influence in Eastern Europe (and to some degree Great Britain)
Disputes over Poland
Stalin wanted to install a pro-communist exiled government in Poland—America and Great Britain opposed wanted democratic government with free elections
Yalta Conference
Between FDR (US), Churchill (Britain), and Stalin (Soviet)
Established the United Nations international organization with a General Assembly with every member and a Security Council with five permanent representatives of 5 major powers (US, Britain, France, Soviet Union, China) and temporary delegates
America wanted to pursue reconstruction and help rebuild/reunite Germany vs. Stalin wanted reparations and permanent division of Germany
US, Great Britain, France, Soviet Union divided up Germany into zones of occupations (Soviet-Eastern, US-Southern, British-Western, French- Southwestern) with Berlin divided into sectors amongst the 4 nations
After Germany invasion set Poland as a temporary communist government with some democratic leaders and allow people to elect their government
Result: NO FREE ELECTION in Poland due to Soviet meddling w/ the government à Poland and Romania fall to communism → High tensions between US and Soviet Union for breaking agreement
*Later brings communism to Bulgaria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria
United States
Soviet Union
Promote democracy and self-determination
Suspicious of capitalism want to promote communism (in eastern Europe)
Fix global economy to
Control area between Germany and Soviet Union (satellite nations)
Promote internationalism (friendly cooperation through trade)
Secure border as Germany invaded twice
Help rebuild Europe and Germany prevent war
Keep Germany weak to prevent invasion
Truman’s Get Tough Policy
Unlike Roosevelt who hoped that Stalin could be reasonedwith Truman viewed Stalin with suspicion
Potsdam Conference (1945)-
Russian wanted to claim reparations—Truman refused to permit Russians from claiming reparations from the American, French, and British zones of Germany and declares Allies can ONLY take reparations from their sector—further dividing Germany into the western and eastern Germany under communist control of USSR
Truman threatens Stalin about a new weapon the US is developing (atomic bomb)
Stalin refuses Truman’s request to have access to Eastern European countries to sell American products (later becomes satellite nations)
Churchill declares an “iron curtain” has fallen over Europe- Eastern Europe fallen under complete control of USSR unable to access western Europe or US products
China
Nationalist government led by Chiang Kai-shek corrupt with little popular support vs popular and growing communist government under Mao Zedong.
Some urged US government to find a third force to support outside of Chiang or Mao but Truman thought he had no choice but to continue support for Chiang—sent money and weaponry to Chiang during China’s civil war
Convinced all out war with China necessary to defeat the communists Marshall and Truman unwilling to
Eventually Chiang’s nationalist government collapses and he is forced into Taiwan while communism takes over mainland China—US refused to recognize new communist regime
Instead turn their eyes toward Japan as a strong pro-western ally in Asia
Truman
Truman’s Fair Deal
21 point domestic program liberal reforms—expansion of social security, government funding of education, national health insurance, raising minimum wage, public housing, environmental/public works, etc.
Many Fair Deal programs not passed by conservatives/Republican controlled Congress
Taft-Hartley Act (1947)
Republican dominated Congress undermine Wagner Act of 1935 (protect union rights) weakens unions as a reponse to percieved abuse of power by some labor unions
Prohibition of Unfair Labor Practices by Unions: The act prohibited certain unfair labor practices by labor unions, such as secondary boycotts (where a union encourages employees of one company to strike in solidarity with employees of another company), jurisdictional strikes (strikes over which union has the right to perform certain work), and "closed shops" (where employers can only hire union members).
Authority of the President to Intervene in Labor Disputes: The act granted the President the authority to intervene in labor disputes that pose a threat to national security by imposing an 80-day cooling-off period.
"Right to Work" Provisions: The Taft-Hartley Act allowed individual states to pass "right-to-work" laws, which prohibit union security agreements that require employees to join or financially support a union as a condition of employment.
Union Reporting and Disclosure Requirements: The act required labor unions to file financial reports and disclose information about their internal operations and expenditures
Election of 1948- Truman Democratic candidate with division within the Democratic Party—ends up winning the election
Dixiecrats: Southern conservatives who opposed Truman’s proposed civil rights bill and formed the Dixiecrats or State’s Rights Party
Congress passed some portions of the Fair Deal including raising minimum wage, expanding Social Security, and the Naitonal Housing Act of 1949
No progress on national health insurance and aid to education as well as the civil rights legislation proposed in 1949- lynching a federal crime, protect black voting rights, abolish poll tax, establish new Fair Employment proactices Commission curb discirimination in hiring
Containment
Containment: American policy to contain the threat of communism/soviet expansion
Truman Doctrine (1947): Foreign policy pledge to fight the spread of communism around the world with political, economic, and military assistance “support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation” and requesting $400 million to bolster to armed forces of Greece + Turkey and provide economic assistance to Greece
Context: Response to events in 1946 where Stalin tried to win control over vital sea lanes in the Mediterranean in Turkey and communist forces threatening Greece
Based on the advice of George Kennan from the Kennan Telegram advocating for the US to pursue a policy of containment
Marshall Plan (1947): Plan to provide humanitarian aid and support the economic reconstruction of Western Europe and to prevent western European nations from falling under the control of communism
US will send money to countries willing to fight communism--help rebuild Western European economies and infrastructure through capitalism resist Soviet Union in these nations
Soviet counters with COMECON (1949) offering increased trade within Soviet Union and Eastern Europe
Economic Cooperation Administration established to administer the Marshall Plan
Result: US channeled >$12 million of American aid to Europe led to rise in industrial production and declining communist strength in member nations
Mobilization at Home
Pass measures to maintain military power at near wartime levels and new military draft
Increased investments into research of the development of atomic/nuclear weapons
National Security Act of 1947:
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) collect information through covert and open methods and secretly engage in political/military operations
National Security Council oversee foreign and military policy
Established Department of Defense to oversee branches of armed services—combining functions previously separate by the War and Navy Departments
Berlin Airlift
US England and France to merge western zones to form West Germany → Stalin responded by implementing blockade around West Berlin
Allies respond by sending military planes from US and Britain to supply West Berlin with essential supplies
Soviet Union eventually calls off blockade as it is ineffective
Result: Formation of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) same with West and East Berlin
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
Military alliance to protect against the threat of a Soviet invasion—attack on one nations is an atack against all + maintaining standing military in Europe
Soviet responded with similar Warsaw Pact military alliance between communist (satellite) nations in Eastern Europe
Served to deter against Soviet Union expansion and the spread of communism into Western Europe
Korean War (1950-53)
By end of WWII US and Soivet Union sent troops into Korea to weaken Japanese occupation and each supported different governments—divided Krea along the 38th parallel with a communist government in the North and pro-Western government in the South
Weakness of Southern government caused nationalists in the North to reuinte the country by invading the South US troops support South Korea
US troops help push back North Korean invasion into the North—change goal to liberating Korea
Chinese troops help push US troops back to the South
Stalemate for several years before eventually signing an armstice with the 38th parallel dividing North and South Korea
Red Scare/McCarthyism
Context: First red scare was political unrest in US fear communist infiltration due to Russian revolution; Truman allowed FBI to investigate secret communists following WWII
Following the successful Soviet detonation of a nuclear weapon many convinced there were spies sharing info to Russians—mass public hysteria surrounding communist subversion/infiltration
McCarthy claimed US State Government filled with communist spies (205) with little evidence and tried to expose communists using FBI investigations
Leads to mass self-censorship—anyone with radical liberal ideas accused of being communists
Many lost their jobs, reputations tarnished, thrown in jail, arrested
Ended when McCarthy accussed communists of being in the military
Eisenhower (1952-1960)
Einsenhower previously a military hero/WWII commander ran as a Republican but little previous identifiation with the party
Pursued moderate policies that appealed to both Democrats and Republicans
Einsenhower appointed wealthy corporate lawyers and business executives to his cabinet
Einsenhower aimed to limit federal activities and encourage private enterprise, reduce federal expenditures, remove limited wage and price controls, and opposed creation of new social service programs like national health insurance (but accepted work of earlier reformers)
Resisted pressure to dismantle welfare policies from the New Deal, exended Social Security system and unemployment compensation, increase minimum wage
Federal Highway Act of 1956: Authorized $25 billion to build over 40,000 miles of interstate highways
Army-McCarthy Hearings:
After McCarthy accused Secretary of the Army Robert Stevens and the armed services, the Einsenhower administration organized an investigation of the charges → revealed him giving baseless accusations led to McCarthy’s decline
John Foster Dulles:
Brinkmanship: Adovcated for pushing Soviet Union to the brink of war to extract concessions
The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Most famous example of brinkmanship during the Cold War the Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world to the brink of nuclear war. After discovering that the Soviet Union was placing nuclear missiles in Cuba, just 90 miles from the coast of Florida, President John F. Kennedy imposed a naval blockade on Cuba and demanded the removal of the missiles. Kennedy made it clear that any attack or attempted deployment of the missiles would lead to a full-scale military response from the United States. The crisis was eventually resolved through intense diplomatic negotiations, with both sides agreeing to remove their missiles from Cuba and Turkey respectively.
Massive Retaliation: US would respond to communist threats to allies not by using local conflicts like proxy wars but use of nuclear weapons
Involved in the Middle East including the Suez Crisis
U-2 Crisis:
Nikita Khrushcev Soviet premier and Communist Party Chief demanded NTO powers abandon West Berlin—suggested that he and Einsenhower discuss issues personally by visiting each other’s countries during Paris summit when NATO refused
Soviet Union announced it had shot down an American U-2 spy plane over Russian teritory Khrushcev cancelled Paris summit
Military Industrial Complex: Coined by Eisenhower in his farewell address refers to the close relationship between the military establishment, defense contractors, and government policymakers
Included members of Congress from districts dependent on military industries, the Department of Defense (along with the military services), and privately owned military contractors.
Eisenhower believed that the military-industrial complex tended to promote policies that might not be in the country’s best interest (such as participation in the nuclear arms race), and he feared that it could undermine Democracy and promote a culture of perpetual war
Economy & Society
1950s economic boom and stability caused by government spending—high purchasing power and standard of living
Baby boom following the war
Impact: Increased consumer demand and expanding economic growth, housing demand contributing to suburbs, later increased construciton of schools
Federal Highway Act (1956)- built interstate highway system connecting major cities → reduce time needed to travel to places, made travel by automobile more efficient than trains leading to decline of railroads, encourage movement of businesses into surburban + rural areas, suburbanization
Growth of suburbs—interstate highway system, more people affording + owning cars, innovations in home-building making single-family houses more affordable
Technology/Space Race (Cold War)
Hydrogen Bomb- In 1952 US detonated frirst hydrogen bomb
Longer range missiles (Minutemen) and underwater missiles (Polaris)
Space Race:
Soviet Union launched first satellite (Sputnik) into space in 1957 → prompts American government to invest in science education, create more research labratories, and creation of NASA
Apollo program race to become the first to send a manned spaceship to the moon
Youth Culture
The New Left: Assertive youth movement and radicalization of many university students following the Baby boom with the largest ever generation of youth in American history
Advocated for causes of African Americans and other minorities
Inspired by writings of social critics critiquing modern bureaucracies, some drawn to writings of Karl Marx and Marxists (although few members were communists), and the civil rights movement
Most radicalism centered in issues relating to universities such as the right to engage in political activities on campus through the Free Speech Movement led to protests denouncing role of educational institutions in sustaining corrupt/immoral public policies, antiwar protests
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)- formed in 1962 with a gorup of students most from prestigious universities to voice their demands with a declaration called the Port Huron Statement expressing disillusionment with society and determination to build new politics
Counter culture
New Feminism
Betty Friedan: Published The Feminine Mystique in 1963 inspired the contemporary women’s liberation movement
She was a magazine journalist traveling the country interviewing women who graduated from Smith College with the majority living their dream lives as affluent wives and mothers while others expresses discontentment
Friedan claimed suburbs had become a comfortable concentration camp for women with no outlet for their intelligence, talent, and education
Friedan helped create the National Organization for Women
National Organization for Women (NOW): One of the nation’s largest most influential feminist organizations responded to affluent suburbanities by demanding greater educational opportunities and denouncing traditional concept of marriage as well as exclusion of women from profesions, politics, etc. and unequal wages
The organization played a key role in the passage of landmark legislation such as Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, which prohibits sex discrimination in education programs and activities receiving federal funding, and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which aimed to guarantee equal rights under the law regardless of sex
Roe v. Wade:
Abortion once legal in much of the US but banned in most of the country beginning in the 1900s but women’s movement pressured legalizing abortion
Supreme court decision invalidated laws prohibiting aborion during the first trimester
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) would grant legal gender equality- Set to pass but by 1970s momentum died because of objection from antifeminist women and conservatives especially Phyllis Schlafly- launched the Stop ERA campaign arguing the measure would eliminate laws protecting women and lead to gender-neutral bathrooms, same-sex marriage, and women in military combat
American Indian Movement
Tribe members gathered to discuss ways to unite Indians to redress wrongs issued a manifesto Declaration of Indian Purpose stressed the right to choose their own way of life → shift in the way media depicted Indians no longer as savages
American Indian Movement gained support from Indians living in urban areas and reservations with immediate political results
Succeeded in passing the Indian Civil Rights Act recognizing legitimacy of tribal laws in reservations
Protested with occupation at Wounded Knee site during the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890 demanding radical changes in the administration of the reservation and insisting government honor its long-forgotten treaty obligations—failed
Legal victories like United States v. Wheeler confirm tribes had independent legal standing could not be terminated by Congress and othe decisions ratify tribal abilities to impose taxes on businesses in reservations
John F Kennedey
Campaigning on ambitious domestic reforms known as the New Frontier: raising Social Security benefits, providing medicare, providing federal aid to education, civil rights legislation, space exploration—Many shot down by the Republicans and conservative Democrats
Passed tariff reductions, raised Social Security, housing law and also established the Peace Corps (1961)- American volunteers provide aid to developing countries to promote world peace and friendship
Impact:
Advancements in Civil Rights: Kennedy's commitment to civil rights was a central aspect of the New Frontier. His administration supported efforts to desegregate schools and public facilities, and Kennedy introduced civil rights legislation aimed at addressing voting rights and discrimination in employment. While Kennedy's civil rights initiatives faced opposition and were not fully realized during his presidency, they laid the groundwork for subsequent civil rights legislation, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Space Exploration and Technological Innovation: One of the most enduring legacies of the New Frontier was Kennedy's commitment to space exploration. His bold vision of landing a man on the moon inspired the nation and led to significant advancements in aerospace technology. The Apollo program, which culminated in the moon landing in 1969, showcased American ingenuity and technological prowess and has had lasting effects on scientific research and exploration.
Economic Stimulus and Tax Policy: Kennedy's economic policies aimed to stimulate economic growth and reduce unemployment through measures such as tax cuts and increased government spending. The Kennedy administration advocated for tax cuts to spur consumer spending and investment, which contributed to economic expansion during the early 1960s. Kennedy's tax policies laid the groundwork for subsequent tax reforms and influenced debates over fiscal policy for years to come.
Expansion of Social Programs: The New Frontier agenda included proposals to expand social programs and address poverty and inequality. Kennedy advocated for initiatives such as Medicare and Medicaid to provide healthcare coverage for the elderly and low-income individuals. While Kennedy did not live to see these programs enacted, they became key components of President Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society reforms in the 1960s.
Flexible Response: Foreign policy contrary to brinkmanship
The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962):
After discovering that the Soviet Union was placing nuclear missiles in Cuba Kennedy imposed a naval blockade on Cuba and demanded the removal of the missiles—any attack or attempted deployment of the missiles would lead to a full-scale military response from the United States.
The crisis was eventually resolved with both sides agreeing to remove their missiles from Cuba and Turkey but brought the world to the brink of nuclear war.
Equal Pay Act 1963: Prohibited practice of paying women less than men for equal work
Lyndon B. Johnson
The Great Society: Reform programs includes aid to education, attack on disease, Medicare, urban renewal, beautification, conservation, development of depressed regions, a wide-scale fight against poverty, control and prevention of crime and delinquency, removal of obstacles to the right to vote.
Medicare/Medicaide: Medicare provided federal aid to the elderly for medical expenses and Medicaide that extended this aid to poor people of all ages
Part of the Assault on Poverty planned by Kennedey
Impact:
Significant increase in federal spending government inability to pay for them led to disillusionment toward federal efforts to solve social problems
Substantially reduced hunger, medicare available to millions of elderly and poor, and greatest reduction in poverty in US history
Passed the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act
Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965: Strict limit on the number of immigrants admitted each year but eliminated national origins system—continued to restrict immigration from parts of Latin America but allowed people from Europe, Asia, Africa equally
Moving away from restrictive quotas based on national origin and towards a more inclusive and merit-based system that prioritized family reunification and skilled labor
Contributing to the cultural diversity of the United States
Election of 1964
Barry Goldwater- Senator of Arizona a conservative Republican, he called for a harsher diplomatic stance toward the Soviet Union opposed arms-control negotiations—lost election to LBJ
Campaign Issues: The 1964 presidential election was dominated by debates over civil rights, the Vietnam War, and the role of government in society. Johnson campaigned on his record of legislative achievements, including the passage of civil rights legislation and his vision for a "Great Society" that would address poverty, inequality, and social injustice. Goldwater, meanwhile, advocated for a more conservative and limited government approach, opposing federal intervention in civil rights and advocating for a more aggressive stance against communism in Vietnam.
Resulted in a landslide victory for Lyndon B. Johnson
Allowed Lyndon B. Johnson to pass his liberal domestic reforms in the Great Society programs especially with a Democrat-controlled Congress as well
Vietnam War
Context: Vietnam part of French Indochina before WWII controlled by Japan and Germany during WWII then declared independence from France in Indochina War
Ho Chi Minh (communist) fight for independence of Vietnam from France
Geneva Conference Divide Vietnam into North controlled by Minh and communist and South
US first supported French then South Vietnam
US violate terms prevent them from electing Ho cause discontent within South Vietnam against the Americans
Soviet Union support North Vietnam
US president Lydon Johnson encourage US involvement in war sent troops and bombing campaign
Eventually under Nixon US gradually withdraw troops from Vietnam + Vietnamization turning war over to South Vietnamese by
-North Vietnam defeats South Vietnam becomes communist
Civil Rights Movement
Causes:
World War II: African Americans served in the military contributed to the US
Urban Black Middle Class: growth of an urban black middle class like ministers, educators, professionals, college students
Cold War: demonstrated the hypocrisy in America fihgting to protect values of freedom and rights in foreign nations yet restricting them domestically
Democratic Party: northern African Americans became a sustantial voting block within the Democratic Party
Brown v. Board of Education
Declared the desegregation of schools overturned Plessey v. Ferguson decision separate but equal facilities and should desegregate with all deliberate speed
Result of the work of NAACP lawyers declaring segregation a violation of the 14th amendment
Strong local opposition to desegregation especially in the South known as the massive resistance with some schools attempting to ignore the circumvent the ruling or ignore it
Little Rock High School incident- ordered to desegregate but whtie mob blockade enterances to the school and governor Orval Faubus refused to stop the obstruction → Eisenhower responded by calling the national guard troops to escort black students
Inspired other challenges to segregation in the South (Rosa Parks)
Warren Earl: Chief Justice of the Supreme Court passed Brown v. Board decision and more liberal rulings such as civil rights, separation of church and state, and police arrest procedures
Baker v. Carr: required state legislators to apportion electoral districts so citizens’ votes have equal weight strengthen voting power of African Americans, Hispanics, others in cities
Gideon v. Wainwright every felony defendant must have lawyer regardless of their ability to afford one
Miranda v. Arizona must inform criminal suspect of their rights
Martin Luther King Jr.
Rose to prominence in the Montgomery bus boycott
Doctrine of nonviolence—peaceful demonstrations, accept punishment like imprisonment
Led the Southern Christian Leadership Conference
Led several demonstrations including in Birmingham (Letter from Birmingham Jail) and March on Washington (I Have A Dream)
George Wallace- Governor of Alabama and segregationist who pledged to stand in the doorway of the University of Alabama to prevent the court-ordered enrollment of black students—taken away by federal marshals but gained popularity among whites across the nation
Civil Rights Act 1964
In-progress by Kennedy prior to assassination passed by LBJ
End segregation in public facilities, discrimination in employment practices with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to investigate claims of discrimination in the workplace
24th Amendment (1964)- Abolish poll taxes
Voting Rights Act 1965
Ends voting restrictions federal protection to African Americans exercising their right to vote
Civil Rights Act of 1968- removed discrimination on buying and leashing a home
Nixon (1969-1974)
Detente: Policy pursued by Nixon to reduce tensions between the US and Soviet Union and reduce the risk for nuclear warfare
SALT Talks: Bilateral conferences signed by US and Soviet Union reduce stockpile of nuclear weapons specifically limit air ballistic missiles
Nixon’s trip to China: Paid a visit to China to discuss policies to improve relations with China and the Soviet Union; reduced American animosity toward Chinese communists and later US recognized Red China
Limits to Détente: Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and subsequent deterioration of relations between the United States and the Soviet Union marked the end of the détente period. Critics argued that détente had led to compromises and concessions that undermined U.S. interests and failed to address human rights abuses in the Soviet bloc.
Khrushchev:
De-Stalinization: Khrushchev's leadership marked a period of de-Stalinization within the Soviet Union. He denounced the excesses of Stalin's regime, including the cult of personality, political purges, and human rights abuses. Khrushchev's efforts to reform and liberalize Soviet society led to a thawing of tensions with the West and contributed to a more relaxed atmosphere in East-West relations.
Peaceful Coexistence: Khrushchev advocated for a policy of peaceful coexistence with the West, based on the idea that capitalist and communist states could coexist and compete peacefully without resorting to war → opened the door to diplomacy
Vietnamization
Inflation: Following LBJ attempting to fund social programs and the Vietnam war without raising taxes heavy inflation + lack of access to cheap raw materials around the world
OPEC Oil Embargo:
Background: Cost of energy affected by inflation; relied on petroleum imports from the Middle East
OPEC began to use its oil as an economic tool and political weapon in 1970s—in the Yom Kippur War Arab members announced they would no longer ship petroleum to nations supporting Israel including the US and Western Europeans + agree to raised oil prices by 400%
US suffered first fuel shortage since WWII and price of energy continued to skyrocket after
Title IX 1972: Prohibits educational discrimination on the basis of sex—equal facilities
Burger Court: time when Supreme Court led by Warren Burger and justices appointed by Nixon (in attempt to create a more conservative Supreme Court)
Passed various liberal decisions such as Roe v. Wade, Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education—ruled the use of force busing to achieve racial balance in schools, and in Furman v. Georgia—overturn capital punishment statuses
Moderate decisions involve rejecting Milliken v. Bardley—plan to transfer students across district lines to achieve racial balance and Bakke v. Board of Regets of California—upheld affirmative action but stricter new guidlines for such programs
War Powers Act of 1973 passed by Congress to limit the Presidents’ ability to commit U.S. military forces to an armed conflict without the consent of the U.S. Congress—must notify Congress within 48 hours of military action and prohibits armed forces from remaining for more than 60 days
The War Powers Act was passed by Congress in response to concerns about the Vietnam War and the role of the executive branch in committing U.S. forces to military conflicts without congressional approval. It was intended to ensure that the president could not unilaterally initiate or prolong military engagements without the authorization of Congress, as required by the Constitution.
Watergate Scandal
Cold War
Iran
American companies had major investments in the oil-rich Middle East
Mohammad Mossadegh nationalist elected as prime minister of Iran (accused of being communist) began to resist Western corporations attempt to nationalize oil sector
CIA joined forces with conservative Iranian military leaders to stage a coup to drive Mossadegh from office and replace him with the shah Mohamma Reza Pahlevias an absolute ruler that people do not like
Eventually a religious revolution led by Ayatollah Khomeini establishes an theocracy Islamic government based on religion
Suez Crisis (Egypt)
Nationalist government in Egypt led by Nasser began to develop a trading relatinship with the Soviet Union
Dulles punish Nasser by withdrawing American offers to assist in building the Aswan Dam across the Nile
Nasser retaliates by seizing control of the Suez Canal from the British to use income to build it himself
Israeli forces attack Egypt and British + French troops drive Egyptians from the canal → Dulles + Einsenhower feared Suez crisis drive Arab states towards the Soviet Union thus join in a UN denunciation in it to pressure withdrawl of French and British troops
Impact:
End of British and French Colonialism: The intervention by Britain, France, and Israel in response to Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal was widely condemned by the international communityforced Britain, France, and Israel to withdraw their forces from Egypt → hastened the process of decolonization.
Shift in Cold War Dynamics: The crisis strained relations between the Western powers, particularly the United States and its European allies. The Eisenhower administration, concerned about alienating Arab nations and exacerbating tensions with the Soviet Union, pressured Britain, France, and Israel to withdraw from Egypt.
Carter
Carter devoted much of his time to the problems of energy and the economy entering office in the midst of a recession with inflation
Camp David Accords