Italy (1915-1925)

Italy at war

    Early Neutrality - joined the war a year late.

Treaty of London - (1915) promised Fiume, Dalmatia and Colonies, but did not end up  receiving these. Caused distrust to liberal government, as the Italian people felt they had won the war through fighting, but their government had lost the war due to the changes between the treaty of London and the treaty of St Germain.

    Conduct of War (inc. defeat at Caparetto and victory at Vittorio Venetto)

5.7 million men fought in war through conscription. Minimum of 600,000 deaths.

Caparetto - defeat at Caporetto (October 1917) against German and Austrian forces. Forced to retreat over 160km, and 300,000 prisoners were taken. General Cadorna blamed the cowardice of his men, and shot hundreds. Led to distrust in army and fractured it further.

Vittorio Venetto - Cadorna was replaced by General Diaz who proved more successful, rations and treatment of troops improved. Major offensive in October 1918 led to victory over the Austrians, partly due to Diaz but also to internal divisions in Austria.

    Post War Problems

Social - almost 40% of the infantry were killed or wounded, compared to 4% in artillery, and this led to class divide, as majority of artillery was Northern Italians due to the position requiring education. Deaths of working class had negative impacts on whole of Italy, as workforce is lost. Elite supported Agraria (most powerful land owners), and the growth of agrarian fascism led to divisions, as before, socialists had been able to count on the landowners for support.

Political - increased divides, as Socialists (who were supported by the working class), had never wanted to go to war, and the working class suffered the most from the war.

Economic - War place strains on economy, but production demands were largely met, with machine guns increased 100 times. This had catastrophic impact on economy, with national dept growing from 16bn Lira 1914 to 85bn by 1919. inflation increased over 400%. The government spent more than twice its 1861-1913 expenditure on the 1915-18 war.

Career of Mussolini

Early - Father was involved in socialist movement. Early political ideas shaped by father. Stabbed several of his peers. Teacher. Labourer. Journalist. Became local socialist leader in Forli (near Bologna), and editor of a Socialist newspaper. Against monarchy and Church. Was for war, and joined the army, rising to Corporal rank.

Rise of the Left

Biennio Rosso (two red years), rise of left in Italy between 1919 and 1920. Widespread belief that revolution might occur in Italy as it had done in Russia in October 1917 (Kings and nobility fear, landowners, business owners, church fear). 

Rhetoric of the Biennio Rosso - "We shall pay with the tears of blood for the shock we have given the bourgeoisie"

Support: PSI had 250,000 members, but the left was split into three groups, with very different views on revolution.

Action included: Food riots (July 1919), General Strike in Turn and Piedmont (April 1920), Factory occupations (September 1920)

Ideas appeal and support of Fascism

Fascist growth - 1919 = 0 seats, 1924 = 275 seats

Ex soldiers - felt their suffering in war had been for little, Mussolini condemned the Mutilated Settlement, gaining support for the fascists from this group.

Big business - initially opposed fascists, due to need to redistribute wealth, however business leaders such as Olivetti and Pirelli offered backing for Fascists, as the Left and strikes had begun to negatively impact businesses (3.5 million Italians belonged to trade unions). Fascists also changed policy on war profits, increasing privatisation.

Church - Mussolini begun anti-clerical, but from 1921, sought to improve relations, declaring opposition to contraception, and calling for return of crucifix to Italian classrooms. Viewed as a barrier to the "Godless Left" by the Vatican. 

Youth - fascism offered a sense of modernity, as it stood for action. Advocated for meritocratic society, where progress rests on ability rather than connections.

Fascism also proved flexible, as many policies altered from strict, and harsh, to more vague (Make Italy Great Again), in order to appeal to more people (change from 1919 to 1921)

Weakness of post war governments

Failure to keep the treaty of London. Corruption due to reliance on trasformismo politics. Government instability (5 administrations from end of war to october 1922 (Orlando, Nitti, Giolitti, Bonomi, Facta). Economic problems post war. Biennio Rosso led to fear of inability to maintain order. PPI had over 100 seats so not inevitable that this would have led to Fascists coming to power.

Seizure of Fiume by D'Annunzio:

September 1919 - D'Annunzio was nationalist poet and war hero. Highlight Fascist manipulation of rhetoric and symbolism. Captured Fiume with 300 soldiers, occupied it for 15 months. Liberal government could not spend money moving against D'Annunzio, against, highlighting their weakness.

Electoral pact and the March on Rome

Pact of Pacification - pact of peace between Socialists and Fascists. Could be seen to highlight Mussolinis lack of control, as he is unable to secure his position as leader over Fascists, and exert order.

March on Rome (late October 1922) - Mussolini plans to march on Rome, Fascist seizures of Town in North and Central Italy, and Fascist supporters gather around Rome. Facta resigns, as Victor Emmanual refuses to sign decree for military action. Mussolini is sworn in as PM on October 30th

Acerbo law and murder of Matteotti. 

Matteotti Crisis - Matteotti was leader of Socialist group, unsure whether Mussolini directly ordered this. Sparked criticism for Mussolini, as highlight extreme level of violence (3000 people had been killed in politically inspired violence between 1919 and 1922. Matteotti was murdered in public doing parliamentary duties, so evidenced as an assault on the constitutional system. Even though the fascists had won 275 seats, they only had 1/3 of the votes, so the mandate was not immediately apparent. Led to liberals and conservatives withdrawing from parliament. Evidences lack of control from Mussolini again.

Acerbo law - Electoral reform that rewarded the party winning elections with 2/3 of the seats in Chamber of Deputies

Mussolini from PM to Duce - propaganda focused on Mussolini leadership, young. Ancient Rome in the background often. Relates to bringing back glory of ancient Rome, recreating Roman empire. Painting Gauro Ambrosi.