Medieval English History: King John to Henry V

King John and the Crisis of the Early 13th Century

• King John of England (Reigned $1199-1216$)     * Historical Reputation: Known for having a horrible reputation; he is frequently cited as the antithesis of his brother, Richard the Lionheart.     * Character and Legacy: While many of his negative qualities were undoubtedly exaggerated by contemporary detractors, historical evidence suggests some of these criticisms were grounded in truth.     * Financial and Political Challenges: John inherited significant financial instability and exacerbated these issues through continuous conflict. Key challenges included a protracted war with France and the existence of a potential rival claimant to the throne.     * Major Controversies and Actions:         * Marital Conflict: He married Isabella of Angoulême, an action that triggered rebellion among French nobles.         * Alleged Crimes: He is historically implicated in the killing of Arthur of Brittany.         * Conflict with the Church: He was heavily involved in the Investiture Controversy with Pope Innocent III.         * Governance: He was nicknamed "John Softsword" for his perceived lack of military prowess and was accused of reinstating administrative abuses characteristic of William Rufus’ reign.         * The Magna Carta: In $1215$, he was forced by his barons to agree to the Magna Carta, a document intended to limit royal power.     * Philip Augustus (King of France)         * Military Contributions: Participated in the Siege of Acre.         * Territorial Gains: Successfully reclaimed the territory of Normandy in $1204$.         * Conflict with the Angevins: Maintained a fierce rivalry with Richard I (Richard the Lionheart) and later John. He attacked and seized Angevin lands and actively plotted with John against Richard.         * Personal Grievances: He was famously angered by Richard I’s marriage to Berengaria of Navarre.     * Pope Innocent III ($1198-1216$)         * Ecclesiastical Power: A highly influential Pope who served as a formidable opponent during the Investiture Controversy.         * Sanctions against England: He placed England under a Papal Interdict that lasted for a duration of $7\,years$.     * The Archbishop Crisis         * Stephen Langton: The Papal candidate for the position of Archbishop of Canterbury. He played a central role in the peace negotiations with the rebel barons.     * The Culmination of John’s Military Failures         * Battle of Bouvines ($1214$): This battle represented an utter defeat for King John’s forces, while Philip Augustus and the French army emerged victorious.

The Reign of Henry III ($1216-1272$) and the Barons' Wars

• The First Barons' War ($1215-1217$)     * Outbreak: Following the signing of the Magna Carta, John appealed to Pope Innocent III for support.     * Papal Intervention: Innocent III ordered the barons to desist and commanded the retraction/annulment of the Magna Carta, which triggered a full-scale civil war.     * Conclusion of the Reign: King John died in $October\,1216$.

• Henry III ($1216-1272$)     * Early Life: Henry was only $9-years-old$ upon his accession to the throne.     * Regency and Rule:         * Minority Rule ($1216-1227$): Initially led by William Marshal as the head of the regency council.         * Personal Rule ($1227-1258$): Period where Henry ruled without a regency.     * Marital and Foreign Relations: Married Eleanor of Provence in $1236$. He later married his son to Eleanor of Castile. Henry drew criticism for favoring his Lusignan relatives (his half-siblings from his mother’s second marriage).     * Revised Policy: He revised the Magna Carta and was essential in maintaining a fragile peace among barons following the conclusion of the civil war.

• Major Figures of the Period     * Isabella of Angoulême: Originally engaged to Hugh de Lusignan before marrying King John while in her $early\,teens$. Following the First Barons' War, she failed to secure an official position on the regency council and later married Hugh de Lusignan.     * Hugh de Lusignan: Rebellious French noble who was captured after the victory at Mirebeau but regained his freedom in $1202$ through promises of loyalty and a ransom payment.     * Simon de Montfort: A French nobleman who married Henry III’s sister, Eleanor. Though initially close to the king, he became the primary baronial opponent of Henry III.         * Leadership: He served as the leader of the baronial faction during the Second Barons' War and was a member of the Council of Fifteen.         * Power: He was the de facto King of England during the Battle of Lewes.         * Death: He was killed in the Battle of Evesham in $1265$.

Constitutional Power Struggles: The Provisions of Oxford

• The Provisions of Oxford ($1258$)     * Definition: A landmark set of constitutional restraints placed on the power of Henry III.     * Key Reforms:         * Justiciar: Reinstatement of the Justiciar to address official oppression, with the office held for a term of $1\,year$.         * Administrative Officers: The Chancellor and Treasurer were to be appointed and hold office for a single year.         * Royal Finances: Control of royal finances was transferred to the Exchequer, removing it from the King's direct control.         * Royal Council Reform: Establishment of a Council of Fifteen, appointed by a body of $24\,electors$ at Parliament to advise the King.         * Frequency of Parliament: Mandated that Parliment meet $3\,times\,a\,year$.     * Abolition: Henry III abolished these provisions in $1262$, which ultimately led to the Second Barons' War.

• The Battle of Evesham ($August\,1265$)     * Outcome: Prince Edward led the royalist army to a decisive victory.     * Casualties: Simon de Montfort and many of his principal supporters were killed, effectively ending the baronial rebellion.

The Reign of Edward I ($1272-1307$) and the Expansion of the Prompt

• Edward I (The Hammer of the Scots)     * Accession: He was $35-years-old$ when he ascended the throne in $1272$.     * Military Campaigns: Conducted extensive military campaigns across Wales, Scotland, and France.     * Wales: Claimed overlordship and initiated a massive castle-building program to solidify control.     * Scotland and the "Great Matter": Edward was asked by Scottish nobles to arbitrate and choose a new ruler for Scotland. He selected John Balliol but treated him as a vassal. This led to conflict, the invasion of Scotland, and the capture of the Stone of Scone.     * Character: Noted for both his chivalry and his volatile temper.

• Eleanor of Castile     * Reputation: Widely perceived as greedy due to her continuous efforts to expand her estate holdings.     * Statute of Westminster Quo Warranto: A legal mechanism ("by what warrant") which she utilized to become the largest landowner in the country.

• The Scottish Rebellion     * John Balliol: Chosen by Edward I but eventually forced to abdicate.     * William Wallace: Leader of the Scottish insurrection in $1297$. He claimed to be divine/chosen to lead. He was captured during the Siege of Stirling Castle.

The Fall of Edward II ($1307-1327$)

• Edward II     * Legacy: Positioned chronologically between the successful reigns of Edward I and Edward III, he is viewed as a failure who inherited massive debts and military problems.     * Criticisms: Accused of relying on "evil counsel," wasting money, and losing land in Scotland.     * Governance Restraints: Forced to agree to the Ordinances of 1310/11, legal checks placed on royal power by the barons.     * Military Failures: Suffered the worst defeat in Scottish history at the Battle of Bannockburn ($1314$) against Robert the Bruce.     * Civil War and Retaliation: The Battle of Boroughbridge ($1322$) saw the defeat of rebellious barons; Thomas of Lancaster (the King's first cousin and main opponent) was executed. This was followed by a retaliatory "era of violence" led by Edward and his favorites, the Despensers.     * Piers Gaveston: The King’s first major favorite. He was made Earl of Cornwall and Custodian of the Realm. His marriage to the King’s niece and his high status led to his execution by resentful barons.     * Deposition: Deposed in $1327$ and possibly murdered while in captivity.

• Isabella of France and Roger Mortimer     * Isabella's Rebellion: The wife of Edward II. Sent to France to negotiate with her brother, King Charles IV, she instead formed an alliance with the exiled baron Roger Mortimer to depose her husband and lead a successful rebellion.

The Edwardian Phase of the Hundred Years War and the Black Death

• Edward III ($Reigned\,1327-1377$)     * Legacy: Reigned from the age of $14$. Remembered as a chivalrous and strategically brilliant king, though his reputation suffered at the very end of his life.     * The Hundred Years War: Famous for his involvement in the conflict, specifically starting the "Edwardian Phase" ($1337-1360$).     * Institutional Growth: During his reign, Parliament became more clearly defined, splitting into the House of Lords (Lords and Peerage) and the House of Commons (gentry and townspeople). The Commons gained the specific power to grant/approve taxes.

• Military Successes     * Battle of Crécy ($August\,1346$): Decisive victory where the English longbow decimated the French cavalry and nobility.     * Battle of Poitiers ($1356$): Led by the Black Prince. The French army collapsed, and King John II of France was captured.     * The Black Prince (Edward, Prince of Wales): Son of Edward III. A brilliant commander known for leading chevauchées (scorched-earth warfare) through France. He died in $1376$, one year before his father.     * The Oriflamme: A French banner signaling "no quarter" or no mercy, indicating their intent to kill all opponents.

• Biological and Economic Crisis     * The Great Famine ($1315-1322$): Affected $400,000\,square\,miles$ and resulted in the deaths of $30-40\,million\,people$ across Europe. Rumors of cannibalism and infanticide were prevalent.     * The Black Death: Reached Europe in $1347$ via Italian trade routes and England in $1348$. It is caused by the bacteria $Yersinia\,pestis$. Medieval people often attributed it to divine punishment for sin.         * Bubonic Form: Carried by fleas on rats. Non-contagious between humans. Attacked lymphatic system, causing buboes (esp. in groin, armpit, neck). Death in $4-7\,days$.         * Pneumatic Form: Bubonic plus pneumonia. Highly contagious via water droplets (coughing/sneezing). Death in $2-5\,days$.         * Septicemic Form: Rarest and deadliest. Entered blood directly. Death within $hours$, often before symptoms appeared.     * Statute of Laborers ($1351$): After the plague created a labor shortage, this law was passed to prevent workers from demanding higher wages.

The Reign of Richard II and the Peasants' Revolt

• Richard II ($Reigned\,1377-1399$)     * Early Reign: Inherited the throne at $10-years-old$. Faced constant scrutiny regarding household expenses and was perpetually reliant on Parliament for funds.     * The Peasants' Revolt ($1381$): Triggered by the Poll Tax (levied first in $1379$ at a flat rate to fund failed French campaigns). Led by John Ball, Wat Tyler, and Jack Straw. Rebels demanded the end of villein status and commutation of feudal labor. The Archbishop of Canterbury was murdered during the uprising.

• Political Downfall     * The Merciless Parliament ($1388$): The Lords Appellant (wealthy magnates) asserted control, exiling or executing the King's favorites and stripping Richard of his power by appointing a council.     * Deposition: Richard’s final mistake was disinheriting his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke (son of John of Gaunt), after Gaunt died in $1399$. Bolingbroke returned from exile, deposed Richard, and was crowned King Henry IV.

The Lancastrian Phase and the End of the War

• Henry V ($1413-1422$)     * Language and Administration: Mandated that all official documents be written in the English language.     * Battle of Agincourt ($October\,25th,\,1415$): A massive victory for the English longbowmen. Approximately $40\%\,of\,the\,French\,nobility$ were killed.

• Joan of Arc and the Siege of Orléans     * Joan of Arc: A teenage peasant who claimed divine visions from God. She convinced Charles VII (the Dauphin) to let her lead a relief force to break the Siege of Orléans ($October\,1428 - May\,1429$).     * Capture and Death: Kidnapped by English-allied forces, tried for heresy and blasphemy in Rouen, and executed on $May\,30th$.

• Charles VII of France     * Consolidation of Power: Crowned in $July\,1429$. Over the next two decades, his armies reclaimed all lost territories, retaking Normandy in $1450$ and Gascony in $1451$.

Questions & Discussion

1. Question: True or False: John’s positive historical reputation rivaled that of his brother Richard.     * Answer: False.

2. Question: The loss of which French territory in $1204$ (and the money spent on its unsuccessful defense) proved disastrous for the relationship between John and his barons?     * Answer: Normandy.

3. Question: John became embroiled in the investiture controversy when he refused to accept which papal candidate as archbishop of Canterbury?     * Answer: Stephen Langton.

4. Question: To which document was John forced to agree in $1215$?     * Answer: Magna Carta.

5. Question: True or False: The Magna Carta was a proto-constitution protecting the rights of the individual and of the common people in England.     * Answer: False.

6. Question: Who initially acted as the head of Henry III’s regency council?     * Answer: William Marshal.

7. Question: What was the familial relationship between Henry III and Simon de Montfort?     * Answer: Simon de Montfort married Henry III’s sister.

8. Question: What was the name of the $1258$ document that placed constitutional restraints on Henry III’s power?     * Answer: Provisions of Oxford.

9. Question: Who led the royalist forces at the Battle of Evesham and defeated Henry III’s baronial opponents, including de Montfort?     * Answer: Prince/Lord Edward.

10. Question: Where were Edward I and Eleanor of Castile when Henry III died?     * Answer: They were on a crusade.

11. Question: Which statute issued by Edward I was meant to control private franchises?     * Answer: The Statute of Gloucester (in English) or the Statute of Westminster Quo Warranto.

12. Question: Against which three foreign opponents did Edward I conduct campaigns?     * Answer: Wales, Scotland, and France.

13. Question: How did Edward I become involved in the ‘Great Matter’ of Scottish succession?     * Answer: He was asked to choose the next king of Scotland.

14. Question: Name one way in which English queens exercised power.     * Answer: Exercised power through diplomacy.

15. Question: Why did Eleanor of Castile gain a reputation for greed?     * Answer: She was invested in expanding her power through land ownership.

16. Question: What was the name of the church in London that a continuous line of queens including Margaret of France, Isabella of France, and Philippa of Hainault all patronized?     * Answer: Greyfriars London.

17. Question: Name one of Edward II’s favorites.     * Answer: Hugh Despenser the Younger (or Piers Gaveston).

18. Question: What was the constitutional restraint on his power to which Edward II was forced to agree in $1310/11$?     * Answer: Ordinances of $1310/11$.

19. Question: Who was Edward II’s main baronial opponent?     * Answer: Thomas of Lancaster.

20. Question: Why was Isabella of France chosen as the chief negotiator with France in $1325$?     * Answer: Her brother was Charles IV.

21. Question: Which English baron was Isabella’s main ally (and rumored lover) in the deposition of her husband?     * Answer: Roger Mortimer.

22. Question: Who acted as Edward III’s main regent?     * Answer: Isabella of France.

23. Question: Name the two houses of Parliament that developed during the reign of Edward III.     * Answer: House of Lords and House of Commons.

24. Question: Which house of Parliament gained the power to approve/grant taxes during Edward III’s reign?     * Answer: House of Commons.

25. Question: What was the first phase of the Hundred Years War, lasting from $1337-1360$, called?     * Answer: Edwardian Phase.

26. Question: After which $1356$ battle was John II captured and taken into English custody?     * Answer: Battle of Poitiers.

27. Question: Which son of Edward III played a significant military role in the first phase of the Hundred Years War, and was especially known for leading chevauchées?     * Answer: Edward (nicknamed The Black Prince).

28. Question: Name one calamity that befell England (and Europe in general) shortly before the Black Death.     * Answer: The Great Famine.

29. Question: Name one symptom of the Black Death.     * Answer: Produced buboes, especially on the groin, armpits, and neck.

30. Question: To what cause did medieval people attribute the Black Death? Name one.     * Answer: God punishing them for sinful behavior.

31. Question: What was one aspect of the $1351$ Statute of Laborers that negatively affected English workers?     * Answer: Workers couldn’t demand for higher prices.

32. Question: Why did Richard II’s reign begin with a regency?     * Answer: He inherits the throne at $10-years-old$.

33. Question: The levying of poll taxes in the $1370s$ led to which explosive event in $1381$?     * Answer: The Peasants’ Revolt.

34. Question: Which $1388$ parliament greatly curtailed Richard II’s power?     * Answer: Merciless Parliament.

35. Question: Richard II’s final mistake was disinheriting his cousin, _________.     * Answer: Henry Bolingbroke.

36. Question: Which English king started the Lancastrian Phase of the Hundred Years War?     * Answer: Henry V.

37. Question: Henry V mandated the use of which language in all official court documents?     * Answer: English.

38. Question: Which $1415$ battle was England’s most famous victory in the Lancastrian Phase?     * Answer: Battle of Agincourt.

39. Question: Which French peasant is credited with breaking the Siege of Orléans?     * Answer: Joan of Arc.

40. Question: Which French king, supported by his peasant commander, reclaimed almost all of the territory lost to England?     * Answer: Charles VII.