Comprehensive Review of Culture and Cultural Perspectives

Defining Material and Non-Material Culture

Culture is characterized as a complex concept that is difficult to define because it is not limited to just one or two specific components; rather, it constitutes the fabric of society. To understand culture, it is divided into material and non-material categories. Material culture consists of physical items that an individual or a society has assigned value to. These are the tangible objects one can buy, wear, or use, encompassing items of personal importance or those significant to society at large. Non-material culture consists of an individual's or a society's ideas and beliefs. This includes the specific holidays a person celebrates and the specific ways they mark life achievements and milestones. Examples of such milestones include weddings, graduations, birthdays, having a baby, and funerals. While some practices are unique to the individual, others are shared practices among the broader society. Effectively, material culture relates to physical "stuff," while non-material culture relates to shared ideas and beliefs.

The Elements That Shape Culture and Identity

Culture is shaped by both personal beliefs and societal influences, and it is also reflective of the environment in which people live. To identify the culture of a specific area, one must examine a vast array of life aspects. This includes methods of transportation, such as whether people utilize public transportation, drive, bike, or walk. It also includes the architecture of the settlement, distinguishing between modern and traditional building styles and identifying whether the landscape is dominated by local shops or by big-box stores that may cause a settlement to lose its unique aesthetic. The nature of the environment—whether it is urban or rural—and the prioritization of land use, such as for recreational parks versus commercial or industrial use, further defines a culture.

Social interactions are another critical component, including whether people speak to one another on the street or interact primarily through technology within specific social groups. Cultural identity is further expressed through language, accents, clothing, and the music heard in public spaces. Prominent religions and the public display of statues, monuments, or specific items also provide insight into cultural values. Food plays a significant role, dictated by what is available in grocery stores, convenience stores, or small shops, and whether that food is primarily processed or fresh. Additionally, culture is defined by societal views on the different sexes, the presence of specific gender roles, the age at which children are considered adults, and how society ranks or categorizes its members.

Governance and economics are inextricably linked to culture, encompassing the type of government in place, how tax revenue is utilized, what services the society provides versus what individuals must pay for, and the types of currency used. Education systems also shape culture by what they teach regarding other people and societies. Daily life is influenced by what people do for fun, the most prevalent jobs in the society, and the overarching social norms. Finally, the physical environment, including the climate and the prevalence and use of natural resources, impacts society just as society impacts the environment. Culture is ever-evolving and consists of shared practices, technology, attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, architecture, and food.

Subcultures and Components of Identity

As time progresses, subcultures often emerge within a larger cultural framework. A subculture is defined as a smaller group of people within a larger culture that possesses its own unique characteristics. An example of this is a school culture; while the school itself has a broad culture, individual grades or even specific classrooms within that school can develop their own unique subcultures. Understanding these cultural layers allows for a better understanding of individual identity. Identity is shaped by a multitude of factors, including ethnicity, religion, language, sexual orientation, age, nationality, gender, socioeconomic status, and various other cultural aspects surrounding the individual.

Modern, Folk, and Indigenous Cultures

Global culture is often categorized into modern culture (also known as pop culture) and folk culture. Modern culture typically originates in more developed countries or regions and spreads through hierarchical diffusion. It is characterized by being diverse and consisting of many different components that change rapidly over time. In contrast, folk culture is more homogeneous and traditionally diffuses through relocation diffusion. In folk cultures, family and religion usually play a central and major role.

Indigenous culture is a subset of folk culture, referring to people who originated at a specific geographic location and continue to practice their beliefs there today. According to the World Bank, indigenous peoples are "distinct social and cultural groups that share collective ancestral ties to the lands and natural resources where they live occupy or from where they have been displayed." Currently, folk and indigenous cultures are at risk of being replaced by modern culture. This threat is a primary reason why some cultures choose to resist modern technology, as technology often acts as a vehicle that promotes and spreads modern culture.

Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism

When different cultures interact, individuals typically adopt one of two perspectives: ethnocentrism or cultural relativism. Ethnocentrism occurs when a person views and judges another culture through the lens of their own cultural standards. By applying their own cultural "rules" to others, individuals often look down on different cultures, which can lead to negative outcomes such as xenophobia, prejudice, the creation of negative stereotypes, or a general lack of understanding.

On the other hand, cultural relativism involves viewing and evaluating another culture by using that specific culture’s own standards. In this approach, the individual avoids judging the culture based on their own background and instead tries to understand the culture through its own unique perspective. This method typically allows for a much deeper and more accurate understanding of the culture in question. While ethnocentrism applies one's own standards to others, cultural relativism seeks to understand others on their own terms.