Comprehensive Review of Jewish Art in Antiquity

Hasmonean and Herodian Era Art and Architecture

• Shimon’s Maccabean Tomb (Modi’in):

  • Commissioned by Shimon as a tomb-monument.

  • Features an elaborate setting including pillars and pyramidal tops.

  • The architectural design appears to be based on a Hellenistic model.

• Hasmonean Era Coins:

  • The artistry reflects the Hasmonean attitude toward cultural identity.

  • Inscriptions feature Hebrew names of rulers and their specific titles.

  • Used as a mechanism to assert Jewish uniqueness.

  • General art trends during this era show an avoidance of images, likely part of a campaign to return to Jewish principles and the destruction of idolatry.

• Herod’s Political Position and Numismatics:

  • After assuming rule over Israel, Herod modified coin designs.

  • Coins utilized more neutral symbols to signal his decreased dependence on Rome.

• Jason’s Tomb:

  • The site is notable for various graffiti images, including:

    • Ships.

    • Palm branches.

    • Menorahs.

Bar Kochba Era and Roman Diaspora Art

• Bar Kochba Era Coins:

  • Motifs focus heavily on the Temple and associated ritual objects.

  • Sukkos holiday symbols are frequent, specifically the Lulav.

  • Images containing a jug have been interpreted as links to the water libations performed during Sukkos.

• The Roman Catacombs and Gold Glass Art:

  • Roman Jews used gold glass to express belief in the "World to Come."

  • Jewish symbols found in gold glass include the Lulav and Esrog, indicating their high importance during the Roman period.

  • Artistic evidence suggests Torah scrolls were placed horizontally in the synagogue $Aron\,Kodesh$ during this era.

  • Gold glass featuring Jewish symbols has occasionally been discovered in what are considered Christian tombs.

• Vigna Randanini Cubicula:

  • The ceiling features mythological figures, paralleling early Christian sites.

  • Interpretation by Frey: Assumes pagans were buried among Jews and were responsible for the pagan features.

  • Interpretation by Goodenough: Views these features as a sign of low-key Hellenization by the Jewish creators.

The Synagogue of Dura Europos

• Location and Preservation:

  • Located on the Euphrates River in the extreme eastern part of Syria.

  • Destroyed in $256$ and never resettled, leading to unusual preservation.

• Iranian Influence and Inscriptions:

  • Iranian inscriptions exist on some fresco panels; their presence is a mystery as Iranian Jews were historically opposed to figural representation.

  • Some fresco panels show eyes that have been intentionally damaged or removed.

• Iconographic Interpretations:

  • Moshe: One portrait features Moshe holding a scroll; Roman traditional influence suggests his depiction as a king-like figure toward the Jews.

  • Yechezkel: Wischnitzer interprets the "Resurrection of the Dry Bones" scene as a promise of the Messianic era, redemption, and revival of the dead.

  • Overall Themes (Scholarly Views):

    • General Agreement: Frescoes represent high points in biblical history where divine intervention guided the Jewish people.

    • Wischnitzer: The overriding theme is Messianism.

    • Fine: The art contributes to understanding themes of the prayer service.

    • Kessler: Suggests it is a Jewish polemic against Christianity (though critics note a lack of evidence for such discourse in the Dura region).

    • Flesher: Two themes: Reinforcement of Jewish identity and cooperation between Jews and Gentiles (e.g., Pharaoh’s daughter saving Moshe).

    • Elsner: Polemics against local pagan cults (e.g., statue of Dagon on the ground, Eliyahu’s victory over Baal).

    • Levine's Critiques/Suggestions: Questions using only two panels to define the theme. Proposes multiple themes: Centrality and holiness of the Torah, prominence of Moshe, centrality of the Tabernacle/Temple (linked to local fundraising for the Temple), and Messianic hopes.

Jewish Art in Eretz Yisrael and Late Antiquity Synagogues

• Mosaic Art characteristics:

  • Widespread use of figural representation began in the $4^{th}$ century.

  • Floors are typically divided into three panels.

  • Common motifs: Religious symbols, Bible scenes (David, Daniel, $Akeidas\,Yitzchak$), the sun god, and zodiac signs.

• Comparison: Diaspora vs. Eretz Yisrael Synagogues:

  • Diaspora sites have fewer Jewish symbols.

  • Diaspora art rarely depicts the incense shovel.

  • Figural art and zodiac/sun god motifs are rare in the Diaspora compared to Eretz Yisrael.

• Beis She’arim (Tessa Rajak's View):

  • Argues the site is not a good source for determining the opinions of Rabbinical authorities or $Nesi’im$ on figural art.

  • States the site was primarily used by secularized Jews from Galilee and the Diaspora.

• Beis Sh’an Antiquities:

  • The cluster of synagogues indicates that the range of art and architecture in Eretz Yisrael was highly varied during Late Antiquity.

• Khirbet Chamam Synagogue:

  • Features a mosaic battle scene.

  • Interpreted difficulty: Both Og and Goliath are famous for being defeated.

  • Blood spurting from the giant's adversaries is symbolic of their defeat.

• Tzipori (Sepphoris) Synagogue:

  • Mosaic floor scenes: Life of Avraham and the $Mishkan$.

  • Specific symbols: Water basin ($kiyor$), showbread and table, basket of fruit ($bikurim$). The water basin is unique to Tzipori.

  • Inscriptions are in Greek and Aramaic.

  • Architectural anomalies: Entrance in the southwest, $bimah$ toward the northwest (away from Jerusalem). Possibly a Samaritan synagogue.

  • Kingdom Symbolism: Lion represents Yehudah; Ox represents Yosef (Northern Kingdom). The mosaic showing a lion with an ox head in its paw may signify Yehudah’s vindication over Yosef.

• Beis Alpha (Yizre’el Valley):

  • Middle panel: Zodiac signs surrounding the sun god, moon, stars, and four seasons with Hebrew captions.

  • Religious symbols panel: Torah shrine ($Aron\,Kodesh$) flanked by menorahs, animals, Lulav, Esrog, and incense shovels.

  • The "Bird" Debate on the $Aron$ roof:

    • Sukenik: Ostriches.

    • Wischnitzer: Storks.

    • Symbolic link: Cherubs ($Kruvim$) from the $Mishkan$ (based on Rashbam and Rashi's descriptions of cherubs as birds).

    • Levine’s Critique: The structure usually represents a synagogue $Aron$ for Torah scrolls, not the Ark from the $Mikdash$; visually, they appear simply as birds.

Specific Motifs and Symbols

• The Menorah:

  • Symbolizes Messianism.

  • Reminder of G-d as the source of light.

  • Reminder of the glory of the Temple.

  • Established as a Jewish symbol as early as the time of Herod.

• Zodiac and Sun God interpretations:

  • Visual accompaniment to $Piyutim$ (liturgical poems).

  • Zanger: Illustrates the mystical ascent of a person through prayer toward G-d.

  • Expression of G-d’s power over nature.

  • Political Tribute: Emperor Constantine was compared to the sun; the sun god served as a unifying focus for the Roman Empire.

  • Hillel II Connection (Levine): Possibly related to the establishment of the perpetual lunar calendar. Donor Severus was a protégé of the $Nesi’im$.

• The Akeidah Portrait:

  • Question regarding the upright ram:

    • Sukenik: The artist simply ran out of room (supported by the childish quality of the work).

    • Yeivin: Relates it to ancient Sumerian/Babylonian motifs.

    • Bregman: Ram hanging from a tree, paralleling Christian motifs where the ram is a precursor to Jesus.

Miscellaneous Cults and Traditions

• The Asheirah Cult:

  • Four-tiered object featuring animal carvings and a woman associated with Asheirah.

  • Includes sun-disk and bull motifs associated with the Baal cult.

  • Terra Cotta pillar figurines (over $3000$ found) may represent Asheirah or hopes for fertility.

• King Achav:

  • Ivory fragments found in Samaria featuring animals, humans, and Egyptian gods.

  • Linked to the "Ivory House" of King Achav, known for idolatry.

• Monuments and King Chizkiyahu:

  • $Matzeivos$ (standing stones) were prohibited in the Bible (Dvarim $16:22$).

  • Kings Chizkiyahu and Yoshiah attempted to remove them, but archaeological evidence shows their continued use in various settlements.

  • Lacked relief or inscriptions; served as memorials or objects of cult worship.

Decline of Jewish Art and Rabbinic Attitudes

• Synagogue Site Defacement:

  • Figural images were intentionally defaced in rural areas.

  • Theories: Christian authorities, Muslim policy, or conservative Jews opposed to figural representation.

  • Amit's Theory: Rural areas were more conservative and used less Greek, leading to Jewish-led defacement.

  • Large-scale decline began with Muslim rule in the $7^{th}$ century due to Islamic aniconism, though Jewish withdrawal from artistic work may have started in the late $6^{th}$ century.

• Rabbinic Sources on Art:

  • Bavli (Shabbos $133b$): Learned from "$zeh\,Keili\,v’anveihu$" that one should beautify mitzvah objects (Sukkah, Lulav, etc.).

  • Yerushalmi (Shekalim $5:6$): Dialogue between Rabbi Avun and Rabbi Mani. Rabbi Mani critiqued the beautification of the academy, stating, "Israel has forgotten its Maker and built shrines," suggesting priority should be given to Torah study over architecture.

  • Rambam (Hilchos Avodah Zarah $3:10$): Only a human figure is forbidden to make, and specifically only as a sculpture in relief, not as a painting or engraving.