AP Lang Terms
1. Abstract Language - Language describing ideas and qualities rather than observable or specific things, people, or places. The observable or "physical" is usually described in concrete language.
2. Active Voice - The subject of the sentence performs the action. This is a more direct and preferred style of writing in most cases, but not all. (Example: The boy grabbed his books and went to school). See also, Passive Voice
3. Ad hominem - Latin for "against the man". When a writer personally attacks his or her opponents instead of their arguments. It is an argument that appeals to emotion rather than reason, feeling rather than intellect.
4. Allusion - An indirect reference to something else important such as history, art, literature, etc. with which the reader is supposed to be familiar (hint - if you don't know you should look it up so the meaning/point of the allusion is not missed).
5. Ambiguity - An event or situation that may be interpreted in more than one way. Also, the manner of expression of such an event or situation may be ambiguous. Artful language may be ambiguous.
6. Analogy - An analogy is a comparison to a directly parallel case. When a writer uses an analogy, he or she argues that a claim reasonable for one case is reasonable for the analogous case.
7. Anaphora - Repetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or more sentences in a row. This is a deliberate form of repetition and helps make the writer's point more coherent. A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous ---I Have a Dreaml speech (1963).
8. Anecdote - A brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted into fictional or nonfictional texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.
9. Annotation - Explanatory notes added to a text to explain, cite sources or give bibliographical
10. Antecedent - The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. (Example: If I could command the wealth of all the world by lifting my finger, I would not pay such a price for it. An AP question might read: "What is the antecedent for "it"?)
11. Antithesis -Two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or clauses, or even ideas. (Example: "Bill's work in school was the antithesis of his sister's. Her homework was tidy and on time, while Bill's was sloppy and late." or " Darkness is the antithesis of light." or "New York is the antithesis of Nome Alaska."
12. Aphorism - A terse statement which expresses a general truth or moral principle. An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point. It's often equated as a synonym with "adage" or "saying" or "proverb". Ben Franklin wrote many of these in Poor Richard's Almanac such as " God helps them that help themselves" (Other examples: "A watched pot never boils." or Nothing comes to those who wait.")
13. Apostrophe - A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity.
14. Appositive - A word or group of words placed beside a noun or noun substitute to supplement its meaning. (Example: Bob, the lumber yard worker, spoke with Judy, an accountant from the city.
15. Argumentation - To prove the validity of an idea, or a point of view, by presenting good sound reasoning, discussion and argument to convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having the additional aim of urging some form of action.
16. Colloquial - Ordinary or familiar type of conversation.
17. Concrete Language - Language that describes specific, observable things, people or places, rather than ideas or qualities.
18. Diction - Word choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types and arrangements of words have significant effects on meaning. An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise than street slang. You should be able to describe an author's diction. You SHOULDN'T write in your thesis, "The author uses diction...". This is essentially saying, "The author chooses words to write." Instead, describe the type of diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain).
19. Didactic - A term used to describe fiction, nonfiction or poetry that teaches a specific lesson or moral or provides a model of correct behavior or thinking.
20. Emotional Appeal - PATHOS - When a writer appeals to an audience's emotions to excite and involve them in the argument. Appeal based on emotions.
21. Ethical Appeal - ETHOS - When a writer tries to persuade the audience to respect and believe him based on presentation of image of self through the text. Appeal based on the character of the person
22. Euphemism - A more agreeable or less offensive substitute for generally unpleasant words or concepts. Sometimes they are used for political correctness ("physically challenged", instead of "crippled").
23. Genre - The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genres can be subdivided as well (poetry can be classified into lyric, dramatic, narrative, etc.). The AP Language exam deals primarily with the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.
24. Homily - This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.
Hyperbole - Figurative language that exaggerates. It is often used in comedy, or to create irony. Example: "We saw a gas station every five feet when the tank was full, but when we finally needed gas, there wasn't a station for a thousand miles."
26. Imagery - Word or words that create a picture in the reader's mind. Usually this involves the 5 senses. Authors often use imagery in conjunction with metaphors, similes, figures of speech to convey information about characters.
27. Invective - An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.
28. loose sentence/non-periodic sentence - A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic sentence. Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays. Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport.
29. Irony - When the opposite of what you expect to happen does. A. Verbal irony - When you say something and mean the opposite/something different. For example, if your gym teacher wants you to run a mile in eight minutes or faster, but calls it a "walk in the park" it would be verbal irony. If your voice tone is bitter, it's called sarcasm. B. Dramatic irony - This is conveyed when the audience of a drama, play, movie, etc. knows something that the character doesn't and would be surprised to find out. For example, in many horror movies, we (the audience) know who the killer is, which the victim-to-be has no idea who is doing the slaying. Sometimes the character trusts the killer completely when (ironically) he/she shouldn't. C. Situational irony - Often found in the plot (or storyline) of a book, story, or movie. Sometimes it makes you laugh because it's funny how things turn out. (Example: Johnny spent two hours planning on sneaking into the movie theater and missed the movie. When he finally did manage to sneak inside he found out that kids were admitted free that day).
30. litotes (pronounced almost like -little teel) - a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: -Not a bad idea,I —Not many,l -It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brainl (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).
31. metonymy - (mětōn' ĭmē) A term from the Greek meaning -changed labell or -substitute name,l metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release that claims the White House declared rather than -the President declared! is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to signify the male and female sexes in As You Like It: -doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat. The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.
32. parallelism - Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning -beside one another. It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities is an example: -It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity....I) The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.
33. style - The consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors' styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author. We can analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc. (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the
Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental, or realist
movement.
34. synecdoche - a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a-saill; to refer to a car as Summer Reading AP Language and Composition wheels; to refer to the violins, violas, etc. in an orchestra as the strings. **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a monarch as the crown or the President as -The White House. 35. synesthesia when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another. Ex: The sight of red ants makes you itchy. In literature, synesthesia refers to the practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image. Red Hot Chili Peppers' song title,-Taste the Pain,I is an example.
36. Syntax in literature refers to the actual way in which words and sentences are placed together in the writing. Usually in the English language the syntax should follow a pattern of subject-verb-object agreement but sometimes authors play around with this to achieve a lyrical, rhythmic, rhetoric or questioning effect. It is not related to the act of choosing specific words or even the meaning of each word or the overall meanings conveyed by the sentences. Syntax = syn (together) + tax (arrangement), or the arrangement of words in a sentence NOTE - In writing, our thoughts are expressed through words. First, we choose what words to use. This word choice, or selection, is called diction. Syntax refers to how we arrange the chosen words to express thoughts. Understand that a writer purposely chooses innumerable ways to express the same thought via diction, detail, and arrangement: I went to the store in the morning. In the morning, I went to the store. I drove to the store this morning. After sunrise, I went to the store. To the store I went in the morning. In the morning to the store I went. In the morning to the store went I. This morning I awoke and dressed and hustled to the store. And so on. As writers, we tend to use certain patterns to arrange our words into sentences. Being unique, we have our own favorite sentence patterns; such distinctive choices contribute to our style. From an AP standpoint, we want to pay careful attention to a writer's syntax. A writer's choice of word arrangement may contribute to the meaning. Consider three of the above examples: I went to the store in the morning. To the store I went in the morning. In the morning to the store went I. Observe the three positions of the subject II The emphasis in each sentence shifts. The first emphasizes I, the second store, and the third-morning. In other words, the focus shifts from person to place to time. A writer can choose what element to emphasize by its placement in the sentence. The information is the same, but the emphasis differs thereby potentially affecting the meaning in the context of the larger passage.
37. tone-(major topic) The author's attitude toward the writing (his characters, the situation) and the readers. A work of writing can have more than one tone. An example of tone could be both serious and humorous. Tone is conveyed and set by the setting, choice of vocabulary and other details. Identifying tone in Summer Reading AP Language and Composition literature is another beast altogether. As readers, we do not hear the modulations of timbre in a speaker's voice. Tone, in a skilled writer's hands, is delivered solely through the words on the page. Look at this attempt at tone: 1. "I love shopping with my wife." Really? It's hard to tell. Maybe the writer does, but maybe he is being sarcastic; it's hard to tell from this sentence. Try this sentence: 2. "I love shopping with my wife, slightly more than I love having my pinkie toes gnawed on by anemic alligators." Okay,(!) this sentence is clearly sarcastic.