theories and methods
Why does we do research
In sociology we do research to:
Collect data
Learn about society
Establish cause and effect relationships
Advise on social policy
What can influence choice of research topic
theoretical position/ values on society- you are more incline to certain political ideologies eg new right, Marxism feminism
Prior research and data - you wanting to further support or disprove previous findings
Values of society - What topics/ opinions are popular to be fond of your topic can increase the research’s sucess
Funding- sociologists may be scoured by companies to research certain topics
Types of data
Primary data- refers to data that has been generated by the researcher themselves- experiments or observations:
Time- different methods take up different amounts of time- eg- online questionaires vs face to face interviews
cost- if the undoing body is paying for research, they may have strict India’s on what they want to collect. If research is self- funded, it could get expensive
Access- how do we intent to gain participants/ data. It may be easier to study one group using certain method over another- eg- observing younger children rather than using questionaire
Secondary data- referees to information or dat collected by someone other than the rear era who is using it- existing government statistics/ documents.
Qualitative data- date which is non- numerical, descriptive, information.
Quantitative data- numerical or quantifiable. Data that can be counted, measured or expressed as numbers or percentages.
Positivism- an approach that views social phenomena as objective facts that can be studied scientfically, using quantitative methods and empirical evidence to discover genral laws and patterns
They love to use research to generate social facts
Interpretivism- a methodological approach that emphasises the understanding of subjective meanings and interpretations that indivuals attach to their actions and experiences
They use empathetic understanding (verstehen)
Choosing a method: PET
Practical:
Time- different methods take up different amounts of time- eg- online questionaires vs face to face interviews
cost- if the undoing body is paying for research, they may have strict India’s on what they want to collect. If research is self- funded, it could get expensive
Access- how do we intent to gain participants/ data. It may be easier to study one group using certain method over another- eg- observing younger children rather than using questionnaire.
Ethical:
harm- researchers should not physically or mentally harm their participants . Participants should remain anonymous. Researchers also need to adjust their methods to proceed vulnerable groups from harm (children, elderly etc)
Consent- participants should be given rights to refuse to be involved at any time. This cannot happen in undercover (covet observations)
Deceit - participants should be aware of intentions of the experiment/ study and know what their data will be used for and why.
Theoretical :
validity- the accountancy of a research method in measuring what it intends to measure. The higher the validity, closer data data is to the truth.
Reliability- reliable methods are ones which can be repeated, with the same or similar answers found eg- lab experiments
Representatives- representative method is one which allows its findings to be to apply beyond the sample used- eg, questionaires have higher representativeness as they can be handed to mass/ divers sample.
Methodological perspectives- sociologists may choose their method based on their outlook on society- eg positivist quantities data greater than qualitative data (vice Vera for interpretivists).
Choosing a sample
Sample- small group of people representative of a larger group- used if target population too big for resaerch.
Sociologists sample of efficiently study larger populations, save time and resources. Reliable- so findings can be generalisable.
Types of sampling
random
Systematic
Stratified
Quota
Opportunity
Quota- researches select participants based on predetermined characteristics- selection process is non- random.
Quick and cost- effective
Ensures representations of specific group
Selection non- random- can induce bias
May not full represent wider population
Opportunity- selecting indivuals who are conveniently available- eg students in classroom
easy/ convenient to conduct
Usual for pilot studies/ exploratory research
Highly biased- only includes those readily available
Results may not be generalisable to wider population.
Random- ensures every individual in population has equal chance of being selected
reduces bias
Provides representative sample- generalisations more reliable
Time consuming and difficult to implement for larger populations
May not ensure representation for key social groups
Systematic- selecting nth person from the list
Simple and convenient
Ensures even distribution across population
If there is an underlying pattern in population- may introduce bias
Less random than pure random sampling.
Stratified- population divided into subgroups on characteristics, like age or gender, random samples taken from each.
ensures representation from different social groups (class, ethnicity).
Requires detailed knowlege of population characteristics
More time consuming/ complex to organise
PERVERT-
Practical
Ethics
Reliability
Validity
Examples
Representativeness
Theoretical
Primary research methods using PERVERT
Lab- conducted in artificial setting using higly controlled variables- eg bobo doll experiment
Practical
allows researchers to control variables precisely, making it easier to establish cause and effect relationships.
Can be expensive, time consuming, required specialised equipments and controlled environments.
Ethical
researchers often gain informed consent- minimising harm, through some experiment’s (Zimbardos prison experiment) which have raised ethical concerns.
Some experiemnt may involve deception or psychological distress
Reliability
highly replicable - can be repeated to verify results
Bias results due human behaviour varying in different contexts (Hawthorne effect).
Validity
highly internally valid due to controlled variables
Low externally valid due to artificial settings.
Representativeness
Often small scale- not generalisable to wider populations May
Theoretical
Positivists favour for due to its scientific/ objective nature
Interpretivists criticise for them lacking depth and real- world applicability.
Field- take place in natural real world setting eg- Jacobson pygmalion in the classroom.
Practical
often small scale, making them easier to conduct.
Ethical
may involve deception of lack of informed consent, especially in covet observations.
Realisability
hard to replicate due to lack of control over variables.
Validity
natural settings, reducing artificiality.
Representativeness
Often small scale- findings may be generalisable
Theoretical
Interpretivists favour it- can capture qualitative data in natural environments
Positivists criticise- struggle to establish can and effect relationships
Questionnaires- written or electronic self- completion survey method- can be given to participants to fill out anonymously
Closed- questions which have set responses which participants has to choose from. Each Answer analysed by researcher, helping generate social facts.
Practical
quick and cheap to distribute, especially electronically- no end for interviews making them data collection efficient.
Ethical-
informed consent provided, choos to answer questionnaire
Some questions maybe sensitive- responders may feel restricted in their answers
Reliability
Standardised questions ensure consistency- easier to replicate study.
Validity
Responses fixed- less chance of interviewer bias influencing answers
Responds may latch depth- responders forced into predefined categories
Examples
Used in large scale surveys in UK, collects structured data from millions.
Representativeness
can reach large sample- increasing generalisability
Individuals with specific characteristics more inclined to answer.
Theoretical
favoured by positivists- produces quantitative
Interpretivists argue they fail to capture complexity of human behaviour
Open- questions which do not have set responses. Parcipants free to respond to them however they wish- can offer thoughts and feelings, helping generate empathetic understanding- verstehen.- favoured by interpretivists
Everything said in closed in terms of PERVERT is the opposite for open questionnaires- favoured by interpretivists.
Interviews- used to collect data through direct verbal interaction between researchers and participant’s . Interviews depth insights on people’s thoughts, feelings, experiences, perspectives.
Structured/ formal- interviewer given strict instructions on how to ask questions. Standardised way eg- same questions, same order, word for word.
Practical
+ Training interviewers is relatively straightforward and inexpensive. They allow researchers to cover large numbers of participants efficiently.
More costly than posting or emailing a questionnaire, as interviewers need to be trained and paid.
Ethical
+ Participants provide informed consent and have the right to withdraw.
Some respondents may feel pressured to answer in a certain way due to the presence of an interviewer.
Reliability
+ Since all respondents answer the same questions in the same way, structured interviews are easy to replicate.
- Validity
+ The presence of an interviewer can help clarify misunderstandings, ensuring more accurate responses.
Pre-set answers may not reflect the interviewee's actual views, limiting depth and insight
Example
Young and Wilmott (1962) used structured interviews in their study of extended families in East London.
Representativeness
+ Higher response rates compared to self-completion questionnaires, making findings more generalisable.
Certain types of people are more likley to agree to take part than others.
Theoretical
+ Favoured by positivists, as they produce quantitative data that can be statistically analysed.
Interpretivists argue that structured interviews impose the researcher's framework, limiting respondents.
Unstructured/ informal- act like a guide conversation. Interviewer has complete freedom to change questions, wording etc. can also ask follow up questions for more in-depth answers.
• Practical
+ They allow interviewers to build rapport with participants, making them feel comfortable and encouraging honest responses.
Time-consuming to conduct and analyse, as responses vary widely and require interpretation.
Ethical
+ Informed consent and a right to withdraw. Also, empathy from the researcher provides comfort.
Reliability
Hard to replicate, as different interviewers may ask different follow-up questions, leading to varied responses.
Validity
+ Since questions are open-ended and flexible, they provide deep, detailed insights into participants' thoughts and experiences.
Demand characteristics / Hawthorne effect.
Example
Ann Oakley The Sociology of Housework 1974.
• Representativeness
+Can capture diverse perspectives, making findings more reflective of real-world experiences.
Small sample sizes aren't generalisable to the wider population.
Theoretical
+ Favoured by interpretivists, as they produce qualitative data that helps understand meanings and motivations.
-Positivists dislike them because they lack standardisation and are difficult to quantify.
Semi structured- each interview has same set of questions but interviewer can probe for more information. Additional questions where they think relevant.
Group- usually consists of a dozen participants- focus groups. Interviewers asks group to discuss certain topics- record their views.
Observations- Observation is a research method where researchers watch and record the actions and interactions of individuals or groups in a social setting. Observation allows sociologists to gain insights into social.
Participant observation-Involves the sociologist immersing themselves in the lifestyle of the group they want to study.Researchers want to understand what is happening from the point of view of those involved and to understand the meaning that they give to their situation.
• Practical
+ Allows researchers to study groups that may be difficult to access through other methods, such as criminal gangs or religious sects.
- lime-consuming and expensive, as researchers must immerse themselves in the group for extended periods.
Ethical
Covert observation raises concerns about deception and lack of informed consent.
Reliability
Hard to replicate, as findings depend on the researcher's personal interactions and interpretations.
Validity
+ Provides deep, qualitative insights as researchers experience social interactions firsthand, capturing meanings and motivations.
Hawthorne effect.
Example
Studies like James Patrick's (1973) research on Glasgow gangs used covert participant observation to study criminal behaviour.
• Representativeness
+ Can offer a detailed understanding of a specific group.
Generalisability of data is limited to usual small samples.
Theoretical
+ Favoured by interpretivists, as it allows researchers to develop Verstehen.
-Positivists argue that participant observation lacks objectivity and produces data that is difficult to
Non-participant observation:
• Practical
+ Easier to conduct than participant observation, as researchers do not need to immerse themselves in the group.
Researchers may struggle to interpret behaviour accurately without direct interaction.
Ethical
If conducted covertly, participants may be unaware they are being observed, raising concerns about consent.
Reliability
+ More structured than participant observation, making it easier to replicate.
Lacks depth, as researchers cannot ask participants for clarification on their actions.
Validity
+ Since researchers remain detached, there is less risk of influencing participants' behaviour.
Lacks depth, as researchers cannot ask participants for clarification on their actions.
Example
Paul Willis' Learning to Labour study. (Overt)
Representativeness
Usually conducted on a micro scale.
Theoretical
+ Favoured by positivists, as it allows for systematic data collection without researcher bias.
Interpretivists argue that non-participant observation lacks Verstehen, meaning researchers may misinterpret participants' actions.
Overt-Involves the researcher sitting and observing an activity. They are a detached observer. They focus on particular types of behaviour activity - observation schedules. The researcher joins in the activities of a group but some or all of the groups know that the researcher is a sociologist and is actively observing them.
Covert- researcher inserts themselves into a group and conceals the fact that they are doing research; they pretend to be an authentic member of the group.
Secondary Research Methods:
Official Statistics
Refers to quantitative data collected and published by governments or other official agencies, such as the Office for National Statistics (ONS) in the UK. These statistics are a major source of secondary data for sociologists. They are often used to track social trends, assess policy impacts, and identify areas for further research.
• Official statistics can be hard or soft.
"Hard statistics" refer to quantitative data collected by government or official bodies, such as birth and death rates and
educational attainment data (legal requirement to be documented).
"Soft statistics" are less reliable official statistics that might not accurately represent real-world social phenomena. Their validity may be questioned due the way statistics are labeled or interpreted. E.g. unemployment rates, crime statistics, and data on domestic violence, where the actual scale and extent of the problem might be underestimated.
Practical
+ They are readily available, cost-effective, and provide large-scale data without requiring direct research.
Definitions may change over time, making comparisons difficult (e.g., crime statistics before and after legal reforms).
Ethical
+ They are usually anonymous, meaning no harm is caused.
Some statistics may be manipulated by governments to present a favourable image.
Reliability
+ Compiled using standardised methods, making them highly consistent and easy to replicate. Methodological pluralism / triangulation.
• Validity
+ Hard statistics (e.g., birth rates, death rates) are generally accurate and objective.
Soft statistics (e.g., crime rates) may be misleading due to underreporting or changes in classification.
Example
Used in studies like Durkheim's (1897) research on suicide, which relied on official records to identify social patterns.
• Representativeness
+ Often based on large samples, such as national censuses, making them highly generalisable.
• Theoretical
+ Favoured by positivists, as they provide quantitative data that can be statistically analysed.
-Interpretivists argue that official statistics are social constructs rather than objective facts.
Interviews
Observations
Secondary research methods using PERVERT
official statistics
Documents
How doe we carry out content analysis out?
indentify a sociological problem
Operationalise the concept/ problem
Choose and study the source
Count the frequency between each category
Compare finding with other source and or the official statistics on such
Gender/ ethnicity representations in school
Male v female and white v BAME
School prospectus
Count the frequency in eat category
Compare the findings with gender and ethnicity statistics on he school enrolment
Positivists prefer random and systematic sampling for generalisability, while interpretivists may prefer quota or opportunity for deeper insights.
Theoretical perspectives
Structuralist- top down macro approach (grand scale approach)
Eg functionalists, Marxists liberal feminists
Focus on how societal structures and institution shape individual behaviour and social processes
They prefer quantitative positivists research
Social action theorists- bottom up micro approach (small approach)
Max weber, mead goffman, neo-Marxists, intersectional feminist
Emphasise role of individual actors and thier action in shaping society
They prefer qualitative interpretivist research
Positivism- an approach that views social phenomena as objective facts that can be studied scientfically, using quantitative methods and empirical evidence to discover genral laws and patterns
They love to use research to generate social facts
Interpretivism- a methodological approach that emphasises the understanding of subjective meanings and interpretations that indivuals attach to their actions and experiences
They use empathetic understanding (verstehen)
Sociology as a science?
5 compents of a science
empirical- originating in or observation or experience
Testable- scientific experiments can be repeated and restested, and hence the scientific knowledge is seen as more realiable than less testable forms
Theoretical- science seek casual relationships and doesn’t rely simply on describing but seeks to explain
Cumulative- it builds on previous knowledge and moves forward out understanding on the world
Objective- personal feelings, prejudices etc, have no place in science. It has been unbiased
Argument 1- positivism - sociolgy s science
sociology can and should be considered a science
Through verification, we can develop a theory that helps explain a social phenomenon/ thing
Can then verify this through future observations
Patterns we we can find can be explained using facts- g educational failure is caused by material deprivation.
By analysing quantitive data positivists seek to discover the laws of cause and effect that determine behaviour
Science is there to explain how things relate to each other, using laws, it is possible to discover laws that control and shape the behaviour of people in society. Therefore, the main task of sociology is to discover general laws of social development through: