Notes on the Collapse of the Soviet Union

World War II on the Eastern Front

  • Key Events:

    • August 1939: Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (non-aggression agreement) established between the Soviet Union and Germany.
    • September 1, 1939: Germany invades and occupies west Poland, leading the UK and France to declare war on Germany.
    • September 17, 1939: The Soviet Union invades and occupies east Poland.
    • June 22, 1941: Operation Barbarossa initiated as Germany invades the USSR, violating the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.
    • Following this invasion, Stalin experiences a psychological crisis, disappearing for two weeks.

  • Military Losses:

    • During the first six months of World War II, the USSR suffers massive losses with 3.9 million troops taken prisoner.
    • Martin Malia (in his work, 'The Soviet Tragedy') remarks, "Never in modern European military history had an army in the field lost such a high proportion of men with so little resistance."

Factors That Saved the Soviets

  • Size of the USSR:
    • The sheer geographical size of the Soviet Union creates logistical difficulties for the German forces.
  • Failure to Capture Moscow:
    • The German army’s inability to capture Soviet capital, Moscow, weakens their campaign.
  • Treatment of Soviet Citizens by Germans:
    • Poor treatment of occupied Soviet citizens leads to resentment, undermining potential support for the Germans.
    • Many Soviets initially expected liberation but found German occupation mismanaged.
  • Lack of Growth in Vlasov Movement:
    • The Vlasov movement, an attempt to overthrow Stalin, fails to gain significant traction.

Post-War Soviet Union and Communism

  • Post-War Reality:
    • The war marks the end of the Soviet experimental phase; an empire-building focus emerges.
  • Stalin at Yalta Conference (1945):
    • Stalin holds a strong position, signaling the USSR will dominate Eastern Europe post-war.
  • Significant Events:
    • 1949: Communist revolution in China.
    • 1955: Formation of the Warsaw Pact as a counter to NATO.

Stalin’s Final Years

  • Stalin's Mental Decline (after 1949):
    • By this time, Stalin is increasingly paranoid and deranged, planning further purges in the party.
  • Death:
    • Stalin passes away on March 5, 1953.

Nikita Khrushchev: Reform Era (1958-1964)

  • 1956 Secret Speech:
    • Khrushchev criticizes Stalin's policies and initiates de-Stalinization by emphasizing collective leadership assignments to diminish the power of a single leader.
  • Reforms:
    • Limits on police power and rehabilitation of political prisoners are prioritized.
    • Social Reforms:
    • Marriage to foreigners becomes permissible; travel restrictions are relaxed.
    • Virgin Lands Project launched to cultivate previously unused land, alongside grain imports from Canada and Australia.
    • Initiates the Sputnik program, marking the start of the Russian space initiative.

Challenges Faced by Khrushchev

  • Decision-Making Issues:
    • Known for impulsiveness and poor foreign policy decisions, notably during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
    • This leads to a Sino-Soviet split (a rift with China) and accusations of undermining collective leadership principles.

Decline of the Soviet Union under Brezhnev

  • Brezhnev's Era (Post-Khrushchev):
    • By 1976, the average age of leaders is 72, indicating a decline in vitality and ideas within the party championship.
    • Economic challenges: production falls significantly below capacity, leading to unsustainable living standards.
    • Brezhnev's "little deal": social passivity exchanged for guaranteed living standards.
    • Wages rise by nearly 60%, but jobs become increasingly menial.

Mikhail Gorbachev and the Final Years of the USSR

  • Introduction of Gorbachev:
    • A youthful reformer contrasting previous leaders, quickly gains the favor of Western leaders.
  • Key Policies:
    • Perestroika: Aims for a comprehensive restructuring of the Soviet economy from command to market-based.
    • Glasnost: Promotes openness in society, advocating for free speech and acknowledgment of past mistakes.

Impact of Gorbachev’s Reforms

  • Strain on the Regime:
    • Perestroika and Glasnost reforms overwhelm an already crumbling regime.
  • Nationalism:
    • Rising nationalist sentiments across Eastern Europe, as leaders express the inability of Soviet military support to ensure control.
    • The collapse of communism in Eastern Europe occurs in 1989, with nations like Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Georgia breaking away.

The 1991 Coup and Aftermath

  • Coup Attempt:
    • August 1991: Hardliners attempt to stage a coup against Gorbachev during his absence on vacation.
    • Gorbachev refuses demands to declare a state of emergency and instead maintains his stance.
  • Boris Yeltsin's Stand:
    • Yeltsin famously denounces the coup from atop a tank, rallying public sympathy against the hardliners, leading to their failure.

Dissolution of the Soviet Union

  • Final Dissolution:
    • Officially dissolved in November 1991, marking the definitive end of the Soviet Union as a political entity.