Notes on Human Behavior as Language: Some Thoughts on Wittgenstein
Language Games and Form of Life: Overview
Central claim: Language is not a purely psychological phenomenon; it constitutes the functional dimensions that make human behavior meaningful. Grounded in Wittgenstein’s notion of language games, language has three relevant dimensions for understanding human behavior: (a) as a medium, (b) as an instrument, and (c) as a form of life.
Traditional psychology often treats language as a psychological phenomenon (a covert/overt behavior, verbal stimuli, or a reflection of cognitive processes). The author argues against this view and proposes a framework based on the concept of language games.
Wittgenstein’s approach is not a single doctrine but a method of drawing out confusions by examining language in context. He emphasizes that meanings depend on the language game being played within a form of life.
Key methodological stance: Use extensive quotations from Wittgenstein to avoid distorting his ideas; language is embedded in social practice and cannot be separated from it.
Core claims to keep in view:
Language is inseparable from social practice; language without social practice, or social practice without language, is senseless.
The logic of language is grounded in social practice, not in universal formal grammar.
Words related to psychological phenomena (e.g., seeing, knowing, remembering) have multiple meanings depending on the language game.
Practical implication: Psychology should analyze the functional organization of behavior in terms of the linguistic dimensions of the situation, not just language morphology.
Language as a Language Game: Core Idea
Language is not a technical concept reserved for speech/writing forms; it includes sounds, signs, and meanings, and encompasses lexicon and syntax.
The term “language” refers to itself whenever used; its elusiveness stems from its extended meanings across forms of life.
Wittgenstein’s language games are conventions embedded in social practices and relations (language is part of activity, form of life).
Language games are diverse and framed by a form of life; their meanings are tied to particular life-forms, not to a universal grammar.
The language game is unpredictable; it is not grounded in reasons but embedded in life itself.
The world as a collection of things/events is not independent of language; language mediates how we classify and relate to reality.
Three analytic uses of language (as proposed here, though interdependent in practice):
Language as a medium
Language as an instrument
Language as a form of life
Language as a Medium
Definition: Language is the medium in which social practice occurs and becomes possible.
The medium is not a transmission channel; it is a convention created through the practice itself.
Language sets the boundaries of joint relations and allows them to occur under shared conditions; otherwise behavior would be trial-and-error and often meaningless to others.
Core claim: Language, as a form of life, becomes second nature and contextualizes psychological phenomena within social life.
Language as medium involves three components (per Wittgenstein):
Learning actions
Learning words and their use
Learning about things and words (understanding actions/objects through language)
Language is rooted in social practice; it originates in practice and is represented through words and rules.
Important comparisons and quotes:
“To understand a sentence means to understand a language. To understand a language means to master a technique.”
Language as medium uses words through which conventional practice operates; grammar here is an abstraction of actual usage, not a prescriptive rulebook.
Learning language as a medium is especially critical during acquisition and early language development.
Language as an Instrument
Definition: Language as an instrument refers to language as a tool that directly affects the behavior of others and the world; it is a set of techniques.
Language as instrument requires mastery of how words function in actions to achieve effects (to name, describe, teach, learn, instruct, inquire, reject, invent, etc.).
Core points:
You cannot just guess word function; you must observe its use in context.
Words do not directly map to properties of the world; they function as tools in actions (see Austin’s notion of performatives and tools in a toolbox analogy).
Concepts are functions of words (not fixed meanings); the same word can serve many purposes depending on context.
The number of words (tokens) is finite, but their functions are virtually infinite across situations.
Language as instrument enables social interaction and manipulation of outcomes within situational contexts.
The instrument view emphasizes the performative nature of language and its role in shaping actions and social relations.
Remarks on grammar:
Grammar is not the condition for language to work; it is a retrospective description of language use.
A “perfect” sentence is not a guarantee of sense if not grounded in actual practice.
Language as a Form of Life
Definition: Language as a form of life encompasses the entire context of meaning-making—the diversity of language games that constitute our life’s meaning.
Meanings of words are tied to life experiences, actions, and outcomes within social practice; different cultures, contexts, or developmental stages may yield different word meanings.
Notable ideas:
Words have meaning only in the stream of life; a language game is only possible with tacit considerations and beliefs that underlie practice (the deep grammar).
Once a language game is mastered, language can transform from a mere instrument to a means of giving meaning to the world.
Tacit presuppositions underlie every language game; consideration is part of the game and part of how concepts are constituted.
Language games specify practical domains and the criteria by which game-outcomes are fulfilled, thereby regulating practice.
The form of life provides a framework for psychology to readdress fundamental questions about human behavior and its relation to language; science, religion, and art are highlighted as examples of language shaping worldviews.
The threefold view of language (medium, instrument, form of life) is not separable in practice; they mutually reinforce one another.
Grammar, Meaning, and the Nature of Language
Wittgenstein argues that grammar is not the essential mechanism that makes language work; rather, grammar is an artefact of how language is used (a posteriori, descriptive rather than prescriptive).
Meaning arises from the use of words within language games, not from mental pictures of world states.
The notion of a perfect or ideal grammar is misplaced; sense emerges from actual speech and writing in social contexts.
When language games change, concepts and word meanings shift accordingly.
The practice-oriented view of language challenges the idea that language simply “transmits” thoughts; rather, language is the vehicle through which thoughts are formed and actions are guided.
Language and Behavior: Implications for Psychology
Core assertion: All human behavior is linguistic in some sense; even nonverbal actions are embedded in language games and social practices.
There is no strict boundary between verbal and nonverbal behavior; linguistic structure permeates actions, perceptions, and interactions, even when they are not overtly linguistic.
Human environment is linguistically constituted; private events are not private in the sense of being independent of language and social practice.
A practical psychological conception of behavior emerges: behavior is meaningful within language games, and psychological analysis should focus on the functional organization of behavior within the linguistic situation.
A proposed psychological framework:
Language as a medium provides the conventional context for behavior.
Language as an instrument enables effective interaction and change through spoken/written actions.
Language as a form of life grounds the interpretation of actions within broader social practices and worldviews.
The three dimensions should guide observational and analytical emphasis toward language games and the functional properties of behavior rather than morphology alone.
Examples of Language Games (Wittgenstein, as cited)
Giving orders and obeying them
Describing the appearance of an object or giving its measurements
Constructing an object from a description (drawing)
Reporting an event, or speculating about an event
Forming and testing a hypothesis
Presenting results of an experiment in tables and diagrams
Making up a story and reading it
Play acting, singing, or telling jokes.
Guessing riddles, translating from one language to another
Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, praying
Seeing a table: seeing is a linguistic episode even without explicit labels; seeing a table is learned through language
Groundlessness of belief in children: mere acceptance shapes many life aspects; early language learning involves acquiring what is to be investigated and what is not
The child’s language learning includes learning how to react and what counts as evidence or grounds
Tenets or Premises for a Psychological Theory Based on Language Games
Language is learned as part of a training process, not merely by rule prescriptions.
Language learning is grounded in assumptions and beliefs; beliefs and assumptions are learned through language.
Language consists primarily in the words and sentences that may be said in given contexts.
Language operates as activities in which words and phrases make sense.
Grammar is derived from the use of words in contexts.
Language functions as a vehicle for human activities in relation to others.
Language is instrumental in shaping the effectiveness of relations with objects and persons.
Language communicates through speaking and writing.
Language is a form of life; it encompasses the meanings of activities regarding one’s world.
Language consists in a diversity of autonomous games; words and meanings vary by game.
Individual experiences and actions have sense via language, but are not identical to language itself.
Language is not simply the expression of ideas or the manifestation of following rules when speaking/writing.
Names and descriptions are used in language, but language does not consist merely in naming/describing.
Language games can be learned practically without explicit rules; learning rules and criteria is not the same as learning practice.
Language and Behavior: Methodological Shift for Psychology
It is inconsistent to accept Wittgenstein’s language-game view while treating language as a kind of private psychological phenomenon (e.g., inner experiences).
Language is always immersed in practical action; words and sentences are components woven into actions, contexts, and sensory experiences.
Psychology should move away from private, inner states as explanatory endpoints and toward understanding the functional role of language in observable behavior.
The claim that language is a second nature emphasizes that many cognitive and perceptual processes are inseparable from language and social practice.
Final Implications and Reflections
The linguistic nature of the human environment challenges traditional distinctions between inner mental life and outward behavior.
The arbitrariness of the verbal/nonverbal distinction dissolves when seen through language games; the same framework can accommodate both verbal and nonverbal behavior as meaningful within its game.
The acquisition of language elements occurs through observation and listening, not through formal rule-application alone.
Grammatical models are not essential to studying language as behavior; emphasis should be on actual uses and practices.
Psychology should attend to the impregnation of psychological phenomena by language and recognize the private/public nature of experience as mediated by language.
The multiplicity of language functions means that language serves many roles across contexts, including science, religion, and art as forms of life that modulate human practice.
Knowing and learning are intimately linked with language; language shapes what counts as knowledge and how it is learned.
Overall goal: reposition psychology to analyze behavior as linguistic in nature, within the framework of language games and form of life, rather than isolating language as a separate psychological phenomenon.
References (Selected)
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kantor, J. R. (1924). Principles of psychology (Vol. 1). New York: Alfred Knopf.
Malcolm, N. (1971). Problems of the mind. New York: Harper & Row.
Malcolm, N. (1977). Thought and knowledge. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.
Mowrer, O. H. (1980). Psychology of language and learning. New York: Plenum Press.
Piaget, J. (1952). The language and thought of the child. New York: Humanities Press.
Ribes, E. (1986). Language as behavior: Functional mediation versus morphological description. In H. Reese & L. Parrott (Eds.), Behavior science: Philosophical, methodological and empirical issues. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Ribes, E. (1991). Language as contingency-substitution behavior. In L. J. Hayes & P. N. Chace (Eds.), Dialogues on verbal behavior (pp. 47-58). Reno, NV: Context Press.
Ryle, G. (1954). Dilemmas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Slobin, D. I. (1971). The ontogenesis of grammar: A theoretical symposium. New York: Academic Press.
Watson, J. B. (1924). Behaviorism. New York: Norton.
Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Wittgenstein, L. (1969). On certainty. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Wittgenstein, L. (1980). Remarks on the philosophy of psychology. Vol. II. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Language Games and Form of Life: Overview
Core Idea: Language isn't just a psychological thing; it defines how human behavior becomes meaningful. Based on Wittgenstein's language games, language has three key roles in understanding behavior: (a) as a medium, (b) as an instrument, and (c) as a form of life.
Contrast with Traditional Psychology: Traditional views often see language as just a behavior or cognitive process. This framework argues against that, proposing language games as the foundation.
Wittgenstein's Method: It's not a dogma, but a way to clarify confusion by looking at language in its proper context. Meaning is always tied to the specific "language game" being played within a "form of life."
Methodological Stance: Directly quoting Wittgenstein is crucial to avoid misrepresentation; language is deeply embedded in social practice.
Key Claims:
Language and social practice are inseparable; one without the other is meaningless.
The logic of language comes from social practice, not universal grammar.
Psychological terms (like seeing, knowing) have diverse meanings depending on the specific language game.
Practical Implication: Psychology should analyze behavior's functional organization through its linguistic dimensions, not just its surface structure.
Language as a Language Game: Core Idea
Definition: "Language" isn't just speech/writing; it includes sounds, signs, meanings, lexicon, and syntax. Its meaning is elusive because it extends across various "forms of life."
Language Games: These are conventions rooted in social practices and relationships, making language a part of our daily activities and way of life.
Diversity & Unpredictability: Language games are varied and shaped by specific life-forms, not universal rules. Their progression is unpredictable, stemming from life itself rather than fixed reasons.
Reality & Language: Our perception of the world (things, events) isn't separate from language; language shapes how we categorize and interact with reality.
Three Analytic Uses: Though interdependent in practice, language can be analyzed as:
A medium
An instrument
A form of life
Language as a Medium
Definition: Language is the environment in which social interactions occur and become possible.
Not a Channel: It's not just a way to transmit; it's a convention created through the social practice itself.
Boundary Setter: Language establishes the shared conditions for joint relations, making behavior meaningful and not just random trial-and-error.
Second Nature: As a form of life, language becomes ingrained, contextualizing psychological phenomena within social life.
Components (Wittgenstein):
Learning actions
Learning words and their use
Learning about objects and actions through language
Rooted in Practice: Language originates in social practice and is expressed through words and rules.
Key Quote: "To understand a sentence means to understand a language. To understand a language means to master a technique." Grammar is a description of actual usage, not a strict rulebook.
Acquisition: Learning language as a medium is crucial during early development.
Language as an Instrument
Definition: Language acts as a tool or technique to directly influence others' behavior and the world.
Mastery Required: Understanding word function comes from observing its use in context, not just guessing.
Words as Tools: Words don't simply label things; they function as tools within actions (like tools in a toolbox, or Austin's performatives).
Context-Dependent Meaning: Concepts are functions of words, not fixed meanings; a word's purpose varies with context.
Infinite Functions: While the number of words is finite, their functions are virtually limitless across situations.
Social Manipulation: Language as an instrument enables social interaction and allows us to shape outcomes in specific contexts.
Grammar Notes: Grammar describes how language is used, it doesn't dictate how it must work. A grammatically "perfect" sentence is pointless if it lacks practical application.
Language as a Form of Life
Definition: Language as a form of life encompasses the full context of meaning-making, covering all the language games that define our lives.
Meaning & Experience: Word meanings are inextricably linked to life experiences, actions, and outcomes within social practice. Different cultures or stages yield different meanings.
Core Ideas:
Words only have meaning within the flow of life; language games rely on unstated assumptions and beliefs.
Once mastered, language can elevate from a mere tool to a way of giving meaning to the world.
Tacit presuppositions drive every language game, shaping concepts.
Language games specify domains of practice and criteria for success, thus regulating behavior.
Psychological Framework: This perspective allows psychology to re-evaluate human behavior's relationship with language, using examples like science, religion, and art shaping our worldviews.
Interdependence: The three views of language (medium, instrument, form of life) are interconnected and mutually reinforcing in practice.
Grammar, Meaning, and the Nature of Language
Grammar's Role: Wittgenstein argued that grammar describes how language is used (a posteriori, descriptive), rather than being the fundamental mechanism that makes it work.
Meaning from Use: Meaning emerges from how words are used within language games, not from fixed mental images.
No "Ideal" Grammar: The idea of perfect grammar is flawed; sense comes from real speech and writing in social settings.
Shifting Concepts: As language games change, so do concepts and word meanings.
Language as Vehicle: This view challenges the idea of language merely transmitting thoughts; instead, language is how thoughts are formed and actions are guided.
Language and Behavior: Implications for Psychology
Behavior is Linguistic: Human behavior is fundamentally linguistic; even nonverbal actions are part of language games and social practices.
No Strict Boundary: The line between verbal and nonverbal behavior blurs; linguistic structure permeates actions, perceptions, and interactions.
Linguistically Constituted Environment: Our environment is shaped by language. Even