Religion, Religions, Religious

Early Accounts of Religion in the New World

Richard Eden (1553) describes the natives of the Canary Islands as living "naked, without shame, religion or knowledge of God" upon Columbus's arrival.
Pedro Cieza de León (1553) refers to north Andean indigenous peoples as observing "no religion at all, as we understand it" and notes the absence of houses of worship.

Key Issues Raised by These Accounts

"Religion" as a Non-native Category
- It is an externally imposed term rather than a self-characterization by the people being described.
- Colonialists are responsible for the content denoted by the term.

Religion is a structured, often institutionalized, system of faith, worship, and beliefs, while religions is the plural, referring to distinct, varied systems like Buddhism or Christianity. Religious is the adjective describing someone or something, such as a practice, adhering to these systems.

"Religion" is the concept, "religions" are the examples, and "religious" is the behavior or description.

Implicit Universality of Religion
- The authors suggest that "religion" is a ubiquitous human phenomenon, making the absence of it astonishing.
Characteristics Derived from Colonial Perspectives
- The concept of religion is framed in terms that appear natural from an outsider's perspective (e.g., "knowledge of God").
Anthropological, Not Theological
- Religion is characterized as human thought and action focusing primarily on belief and behavior norms.

Early Historical Context of Religion

The term "religion" has a lengthy history, much of which predates and differs from contemporary understandings.
Uncertainty over etymology; key theories include it originating from the root *leig (meaning "to bind") rather than other roots meaning "to reread" or "to be careful."
In Roman and early Christian Latin, terms (religio/religiones) primarily related to ritual obligations rather than broader philosophical implications.

Development of Religious Concepts in Scholarly Works

Concepts of religion evolved, especially during the Spanish exploration of Mesoamerica, leading to descriptions using religious frameworks.
Example: Hernán Cortés, in his second Carta de Relacion (1520), refers to the mosques (mezquitas) in Tenochtitlan and considers the religious orders of local peoples: "All these monks (religiosos)… from the time they enter the order."

Transition to Systematic Representations of Religion

Joseph de Acosta's "The Natural and Moral History of the Indies" (1590) illustrates a growing systematic approach.
Acosta's work lacks a definition for “religion” but associates it with ceremonial actions. Key related terms include:
   - Custom (costumbre)
   - Superstition (superstición)
   - Idolatry (idolatría)
   - Ritual (rito)
   - Ceremony (ceremonia)
   - Feasts (fiestas y solemnidades)

Shifts in Religious Definitions

By the 18th century, definitions shift significantly:
   - Samuel Johnson (1755) describes religion more as virtue based on reverence for God, separating it from ritualistic connotations.
   - The early Encyclopaedia Britannica (1771) emphasizes knowing God and rendering service, further moving away from ritual definitions.

Influence of Protestant Reformation on Definitions

Reformation figures such as Zwingli and Calvin prioritize "piety" over other definitions, leading to the notion that religion relates primarily to belief rather than practice.
This redefinition posed challenges regarding theology, authority, and the multiplicity of religious traditions.

Emergence of Natural Religion Concept

The term "natural religion" becomes common in the latter half of the 17th century.
Richard Baxter's "The Reasons of the Christian Religion" (1667) delineated between natural and supernatural religion, affecting later scholarly considerations.
David Pailan (1994) discusses at least eleven differing notions of natural religion, varying from rational revelation of common religious beliefs to comparative studies of established religions.

David Hume's Contribution and Critique

In his work "The Natural History of Religion" (1757), Hume argues against the idea of religion being innate to human nature.
He critiques the universality argument for religion, explaining that no two cultures share the same beliefs precisely, thus concluding that religious principles are secondary and susceptible to corruption.

Evolving Taxonomies of Religious Classification

The classification of diverse religions became pressing in the 19th century due to increased ethnographic data and translations of religious texts.
Early classifications included major Christian denominations and extended to include Jewish, Muslim, and other traditions.

Illustrative Examples of Taxonomic Efforts

Johann Heinrich Ursin’s (1563) handbook focused on identifying religions broadly, foreshadowing modern sectarian histories.
The explosion of Jesuit and missionary studies provided comparative frameworks, establishing the categories of natural and supernatural religions.
Publications describing religions included:
   - Alexander Ross’s "Pansebeia" (1614)
   - Bernard Picart’s "Cérémonies et coutumes de tous peuples du monde" (1723-43)
   - Tiele’s outline of universal religions (1876).

Shift from Monolithic to Pluralistic Models of Religion

The approach shifted dramatically by the late 19th century, evolving from broader categorizations into more refined models distinguishing between national and universal religions.

Current Scholarly Perspectives on Defining Religion

Paul Tillich provides a definition emphasizing ultimate concern shaping moral and existential human dimensions.

Key Definitions from Contemporary Scholars

Melford E. Spiro defines religion as "an institution consisting of culturally patterned interaction with culturally postulated superhuman beings."
Ninian Smart advocates understanding religion as "worldview," highlighting belief systems that mobilize human emotions and actions.

Complexity of Defining Religion

James H. Leuba's cataloging of over fifty definitions illustrates the difficulty and variability in defining religion precisely, with implications for the academic study of religion.
The act of defining religion itself reflects the intellectual traditions and frameworks developed across disciplines, positioning religion as a critical category within cultural studies.