Austin sports history
UNIT 12-SPORTS IN SOCIETY
SPORTS AND SOCIALIZATION
1. Socialization: an active process of learning and social development, which occurs as we interact with one another and become acquainted with the social world in which we live.
- we are not passive learners in this process
-we actively interpret and interact and make decisions with what we see and hear in the world.
DIFFERENT TRADITIONAL VIEWS OF SOCIALIZATION
1. Functionalists - see it as a process through which we develop social characteristics that allow us to fit into society and contribute.
*important to this process are significant others, those who socialize us:
School, Family, media
- functionalists ask "why do people participate in sports?"
2. Conflict Theory - these people look at sports as a process that serves the economic needs of a capitalist system by influencing people in society to become compliant workers and eager consumers of goods/services.
*those with economic power direct and use these forces to maintain their privileged position in society.
*Traditionally, the view is that elitist, oppressive organized sports programs and autocratic, militaristic style coaches produced obedient, politically conservative and willing to engage in violence to achieve goals approved by those in power in society.
3. Interactionist Theory - interactive process of learning about the social world and our participation in it.
Functionalist Theory Individuals believe that sport participation has three factors:
Person's ability/characteristics
Influence of significant others (parents, siblings, teachers, peers)
Availability of opportunities to play and experience success in sports.
Becoming Involved and Staying Involved in Sports
Ex. A - Elite Athlete
1 - processes begin with introduction and involvement
- Young person receives support when they try sports.
- introduction took place, in a bit by bit process through important relationships.
- eventually, they chose to specialize in one sport based on evaluation of success potential.
2 - development of commitment
- create a web of personal relationships with other participants and develop their sports identity.
- the athlete participates over time and those important in their lives recognize/respect them as athletes and they continue to become more committed living the life of an athlete.
*Studies prove that these processes are not automatic, but the athlete makes them happen.
B - Accepted as an Athlete
- playing sports can be an important part of identity formation.
- the athlete becomes recognized as such as a member of a subculture in a 4 part process:
acquire knowledge of sport
associate with people involved in sport
learn how people think about their sport & what they do and expect from each other.
become recognized and accepted as a fellow athlete.
*These processes involve new vocabulary, new ways of referring to members and what they can do.
C - Participate or Not
Factors in participation
how does sport participation relate to other interests/goals in lives
desire to develop/display competence that would gain them confidence/recognition from others
memories of past experiences with physical activities.
general sports related cultural images and messages that they had in their minds.
*most people want to have "control" over their lives
*participation in sports is based on a series of decisions made during the life course and perceived cultural importance of sports.
D - Changing or Ending Sport Participation
When people drop out of sports:
most change their role, rather than being uninvolved (player to coach/administrator)
it could be due to an environmental change (change of school, job, marriage, kids)
injuries can change/end participation
Some have problems finding a new identity as something other than a player.
burnout (playing since a young age, too many games, too much pressure).
Sports: Is it a Character Builder?
Original Assumptions
"Sports builds character"
- basis for kids playing for generations however "character" is tough to measure.
- all organized competitive sports are similar for all athletes.... faulty
- character shaping experiences are unique... and not shared by non-participants…. faulty
"Reality'
developing identities can occur from non-sport experiences
knowledge of the world (wisdom) doesn't have to do with sports
relationships are formed outside of sports
sports experiences can be used in dealing with situations outside of sports
there are opportunities to create competence/responsibility in activities outside of sports
sports can constrict a person's opportunity/knowledge/experience/relationship
Social World - a way of life. Sports is often seen as part of a "social world" but can also be seen as a "'world" unto itself.
the social worlds of sports are sites for powerful forms of socialization.
one has to know these worlds and connect them to the culture as a whole.
Hegemony - process of forming consent around a particular ideology.
Ideological outposts - terminals through which a range of messages can be delivered to individuals.
SPORTS AND CHILDREN
Origins
- started later half of the C20 in North America/Europe
- commonly held belief was that sports positively influenced childhood development.
- church groups, playgrounds and schools organized activities for kids.
- Team sports were designed in order to teach working class children how to work together.
- sports would turn middle upper class boys into future leaders.
- this was also designed to de-feminize the values that they learned at home.
- girls were given activities that would teach them domestic skills.
- through the 1950's and 1960's children's sports boomed
- parents wanted their sons "character's built"
*fathers became coaches, managers and league administrators
*mothers cleaned uniforms, became cooks and chauffeurs for their kids to get to games.
Programs for 8-14 year old boys were built emphasizing competition to prepare them for occupational success.
- Until the 1970's, in North America/Europe, girls were relegated to being in the bleachers of their brothers' games or acting as cheerleaders!
*women's fitness movement and women's rights stimulated the development of sports for girls.
- in the 1970's and 1980's the girls sports programs expanded equaling boys opportunities
- In spite of legislation, participation rates have remained lower for girls than boys.
*In modern society, community sports activities have made it common for parents to encourage both boys and girls to be involved in adult organized and self directed sports.
Increased Popularity-Changes in youth sports
1. Both parents work, creating a need to have adults after school/summer activities.
2. "good parents" know where their kids are at all times (emphasize adult centered activities)
3. child -controlled activities provide occasions for kids to cause trouble.
4. the outside world is too dangerous for their children... organized sports keep them safe.
5. sports are high profile. kids gain acceptance for playing sports.
*These account for the increased popularity in children's sports as well as parents' willingness to invest in childhood participation in sports.
- a negative is that poor/working class parents are seen as "negligent" because they couldn't pay for their children's participation.
Trends in Youth Sports Today
organized programs have become privatized.
organized programs are increasingly likely to emphasize "performance ethic".
increased number of elite sports training facilities.
parents are more involved/concerned about their kids' participation and success in sports.
performance in "extreme" sports have increased.
Informal/Formal Player Controlled Sports
1 - Player Controlled Sports:
Emphasize four things:
1. action, leading to scoring.
2. personal involvement in action
3. challenging experiences, for competition
4. reaffirmation of friendship during games.
2 - Formal, Adult Controlled Sports
Emphasize
1. role on a team
2. schedules determine the duration/play of sports
3. structure stops debate over disagreements
4. children were organized, limiting affection/friendship displays during games.
5. standardization controlled player behavior.
6. players very serious with a final goal to "have fun"
7. player status on organized teams was based on coaches "valuing" of players.
Recommendations
1 - changing informal & alternative sports
instead of laws prohibiting these child centered activities, allow them
become supportive of informal sports in all forms
2 - changing organized sports
increasing action - alteration of rules to expand scoring/interest
increasing personal involvement - maximizing player involvement to allow less skilled
players to get " on the field" and "off the bench"
creating close scores - alter rosters, change of rules
maintaining friendships - private "player only" sessions
3 - changing high performance sports programs
a - change policies, procedures and rules to account for the interest of children
b - create less controlling environments to promote empowerment/growth/empowerment.
4 - coaching education programs
Give coaches:
a - information on how to deal with young people responsibly and safely
b -information on how to be effective in organizing practices and teaching coaches how to run practices
DEVIANCE IN SPORTS
Deviance - consists of actions, ideas, and characteristics that fall outside a normally accepted range, because they involve extreme cases of overconformity or extreme cases of underconformity.
Four problems faced when dealing with deviance in sports
causes of deviance are diverse
what is accepted in sports can be deviant in society
deviance in sports involves an unquestioned acceptance of norms, rather than a rejection.
training and performance in sports have become more scientific
Differing Views of Deviance
- most athletes are "hyper-conformers"
- if athletes were in charge, there would be no deviance in sports
- there are two types of deviance in sports
Overconformity - consists of actions that involve a rejection or lack of awareness of norms.
Underconformity - consists of actions that involve an uncritical acceptance of rules.
Sports Ethic is a set of norms that many people in power and performance sports have accepted as the dominant criteria for defining what it means to be an athlete and to successfully claim an identity as an athlete.
*some sociologists state that group dynamics enforce deviant overconformity based on the sports ethic
Four Norms that Make up the Core of the Sports Ethic
1. an athlete sacrifices "for the game"
2. athletes strive for distinction
3. athletes accept risks and play through pain
4. an athlete accepts no limits in pursuit of possibilities
Reasons Athletes Engage in Deviant Overconformity
sports experiences are so exhilarating that they want to continue as long as possible
athletes who over conform are more likely to be sponsored for continued participation
these athletes are made models for their teams.
exceeding the normative boundaries infuses drama and excitement into people's lives, increasing the stakes associated with their sports.
Most likely to overconform
those with low self esteem and look for acceptance.
athletes who see sports as their only way to get ahead & become important in the world.
*deviant overconformity presents social control problems in sports. Coaches, managers, owners and sponsors benefit when athletes blindly accept and overconform to sports ethic. They see it as a blessing and personal commitment to the organization. This is why those in control of sports are unwilling to discourage deviance.
On-field Deviance-examples
cheating, gambling, shaving points, throwing games, engaging in unsportsmanlike conduct, fighting, taking performance enhancing drugs, avoiding rules
Off-field Deviance
criminal activity, delinquency, academic cheating, alcohol use/binging, felony
Deviance Among Non Players
Coaches who hit players, treat them inhumanely, mock masculinity of players to motivate, harass women in/out of sports, and violate organizational rules.
Program administrators who subvert rules
Sports/team owners who violate antitrust laws, collude and mislead city officials/voters
Sports administrators who take bribes and gifts in return for favors.
Judges who take bribes to alter event outcomes.
Managers & personnel staff who ignore dynamics of race when they hire/recruit for jobs.
Media promoters/commentators who distort/misrepresent events to gain ratings
Agents who mislead/misrepresent athletes and violate rules
Parents/spectators who taunt/berate/fight with each other, ref's and players as they watch kids sports
Spectators who endanger athletes by throwing objects onto the field/destroy property.
Substance Abuse In Sports
Challenges
massive research/development effort devoted to performance enhancing substances.
deep fascination with technology and how it can be used to push human limits.
view that the body influences how people deal with the relationship between body/mind
there is a growing emphasis on self-medication.
gender relations are changing in contemporary society.
organization of power & performance sports encourages athletes to overconform to sport ethics.
coaches, sponsors, administrators, and fans clearly encourage deviant overconformity.
performance of athletes is closely monitored within the social structure of elite sports.
Drug Testing Controversy
AGAINST TESTING
testing is generally ineffective because athletes are often one step ahead of testers.
submitting to drug testing violates rights to privacy.
drug tests are expensive and drain valuable resources used for other areas.
drug tests are ineffective for substances naturally produced by the body.
drug tests provide incentive for people to develop genetic engineering to alter physical characteristics.
IN FAVOR OF TESTING
testing is needed to protect the athlete.
testing is needed to maintain a competitive level playing field.
testing is legally justified because the actions affect the lives of other people.
drug testing is part of normal law enforcement because these drugs must be controlled.
drug tests must be expanded to anticipate genetic engineering.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Critically examine the hypocrisy involved in elite power/performance sports.
Establish rules indicating clearly that certain risks to health are undesirable/unnecessary.
Establish rules stating that injured athletes shouldn't be allowed to play until they're well.
Establish educational programs for young athletes.
Establish codes of ethics for sports scientists.
Make drug education part of larger deviance and health education programs.
Violence and Masculinity
- it is important to understand gender ideology and issues of masculinity in culture.
- males come to sport with identities that lead them to define their athletic experiences differently than females do.
- males are trained to believe that aggression within the rule bound structure of sport is legitimate & "natural".
- injurious acts, within the rules of the game are seen as the norm and part of how they are judged and how they evaluate each other.
- boys discover that if they play sports and come to be seen as people who can do violence and utilize physical skills, then they can avoid social labels (wimp.... etc).
*if he avoids "contact" sports, then he risks estrangement from his friends.
*connections between violence and acceptance in contact sports is shown in team rituals establishing that rookie players be subjected to violent/aggressive treatment-hazing (to see if they have "what it takes")
Violence, Gender, Social Class, Race
- according to Messer's studies, men from lower-income families & minority-group backgrounds placed importance on the respect they received when they played sports and when they used intimidation, aggression, and violence on the field.
Institutionalized Violence
Violence as a Strategy: non-contact sports
- in non-contact sports, players:
- slam balls into the ground,
- berate officials.
- violent imagery to explain their game.
Violence as a Strategy: men's contact sports
- in contact sports, players use these to defeat opponents:
- intimidation,
- aggression,
- violence
*IN SHORT... whatever it takes to win.
Pain and Injury: The Price of Violence
- accept pain and violence in sports BUT people are concerned about injuries caused by violence.
*People want the violence, but want it without consequences.
- sports violence can cause pain, injury, disability, and death
*dominating this ideology is that injuries are not just part of the ethos of power and performance sports, but at times your masculinity is up for grabs.
*what may occur is that men in these sports define masculinity as part of the fear of weakness and avoid emotional concern for others
Controlling On Field Violence
- difficult to control in brutal body contact sports.
- 90% of injuries in power and performance sports are within the rules!
Violence Off the Field
- athletes in contact sports have been known to have a difficult time adjusting their behavior between the two worlds.
- it is still not clear as to whether violence in a sport is a cause or an effect of violence that occurs in the other spheres of their lives.
Assault Rates of Athletes and Non-Athletes
violence against women occurs
it is a serious problem
male athletes are among the perpetrators of violence
problems may manifest themselves in sports, so they must deter this activity.
Control & Carryover
some athletes in power/performance sports have difficulty in controlling off field violence.
Violence Among Spectators
Sports can incite violence among spectators.
Violence Among TV Viewers
most people watch in front of TV.
viewers get angry during games/matches.
this anger/violence can even be directed at family and friends.
Violence At Sporting Events
at non contact sports, they seldom engage in violence (expressive, but not violence).
at contact sports, thev are more vocal and emotional.
crowd violence has occurred and has been a problem, especially around the world.
Celebratory Violence
Disappointment Violence
Factors Related to Violence At Sports Events
action in sport event itself
crowd dynamics
historical social, economic and political contexts in which the event is planned/played.
Situational Factors, Crowd Dynamics and Violence
crowd size and the standing or seating patterns of spectators.
composition of the crowd in terms of age, sex, social class and racial/ethnic mix
meaning and importance of the event of spectators
history of the relationship between the teams and between spectators
crowd control strategies used at the event
alcohol consumption of spectators
location of the event (neutral site)
importance of the team as a source of identity for spectators (class identity, ethnic or national identity, regional/local identity, club or gang identity)
Violence and the Overall Context in Which Events Occur
- sports do not take place in a social vacuum.
- many of the aforementioned factors must be taken into account when events (and possible violence) occur
- powerlessness/alienation leads to lashing out.
- lives devoid of significance, that they want something to latch onto for "something" to remember.
- also could be used to express loyalty for their team.
Controlling Violence
- effective spectator violence control is based on three factors
perceived on field violence positively influences crowd violence. Therefore control player violence. (High profile fans-speak out against violence, unity rituals)
crowd dynamic awareness (no alcohol, limit contact between hostile fans)
awareness of historical/social/economic/political issues underlying crowd violence. (Security measures)
*The goal is to create a safe environment for people to participate and enjoy a sport.
GENDER AND SPORTS
Most discussions involving gender relations fall into two categories:
Fairness and Equality
Ideology and Culture
Issues related to fairness and equality involve:
sport participation patterns among women
gender inequalities in participation opportunities, athletic support, & coaching/administration jobs.
strategies for achieving equal opportunities for girls and women.
Issues related to ideology and culture involve:
the production/reproduction of gender ideology connected to sports.
ways in which prevailing gender ideology constrains the lives of women/men and subverts the achievement of gender equality.
cultural changes required to achieve gender equity and democratic access to sports participation.
Participation/Equity Issues
the most dramatic change in the world of sports over the past generation has been the increased participation of girls/women.
this has occurred in mostly wealthy nations but changes have occurred in poor nations as well.
there has been some resistance in some countries, but programs have succeeded that didn't exist 20 years ago.
REASONS FOR INCREASED PARTICIPATION
New Opportunities
Government equal rights legislation-Title IX (in USA)
Global Women's rights movement
Health and fitness movement
Increased media coverage of women in sports
*when predicting future participation increases, be cautious because:
budget cutbacks and privatization of sports programs
resistance to government regulations
backlash among those who resent changes favoring strong women
under representation of women in decision making positions in sports.
continued emphasis on "cosmetic fitness"
trivialization of women's sports
homophobia and the threat of being labeled "lesbian"
Gender and Fairness Issues in Sports:
opportunities to participate in sports have been traditionally lacking in women's sports (Ex. ZERO women participated in the 1896-1908 summer games, women didn't do marathons in the Olympics until '72)
support for athletes-most North American high schools and colleges seldom receive the same support enjoyed by men.
- there have been serious inequalities in:
facility access & quality
publicity for teams/individuals/events
scholarship availability
program operating expenses
supply and maintenance
recruiting budgets
scheduling of games/practices
travel/per diem expenses
number & salary of coaches for team
Strategies to Achieve Equality & Fairness.
- confront discriminatory practices in organizations and advocating for women athletes & women coaches/administrators
- create supportive work environments for women in organized sports
- recruit women athletes into the coaching ranks
- promote women's sports as a revenue producers
Ideological/Cultural Issues
Cultural Ideology-sets of interrelated ideas that people use to explain individual action and social life.
- Gender ideology differs from culture to culture
- In general all people are classified into one of two sex categories male or female
- these are usually defined by biological terms
*Everyone in the male category is naturally different and everyone in the female category is naturally different.
- they are all held to different normative expectations when it comes to feelings, thoughts and actions
- These characteristics or expectations are the outline for the basis of how people define gender.
- many view the two sexes as opposite, forcing biology to fit popular social definitions of what males/females are supposed to be based on physical terms.
Celebrating Masculinity - gender is not fixed in nature.
- it is preserved if people police gender boundaries and maintain them through, myths, rituals and cultural practices.
- sports preserve gender ideology in many cultures.
- men's achievements in power and performance sports have been used as evidence of men's aggressive nature, superiority over women, and their rights to claim social/physical space as their own. – big, tough, male athletes are symbolic proof of traditional gender ideology.
- looking at the dominant sport forms in many societies, most of them involve actions highlighting:
masculine virility
power and
toughness ( dominant masculine traits in these societies)
Sports Stadiums have been described as "men's cultural centers" due to:
cater to men's interests
being a place where men "kill, whip or punish" their opponents
images surrounding the stadium emphasize aggression/physical power/ intimidation
“when dealing with the male ego, it's not about winning, it's about dominating”
Role of Sports Culture Sociologically - Sports provides a narrative through which a reality of diverse and contradictory masculinities are homogenized through the fantasies and symbols of a heroic manhood, in which playing a role of warrior becomes the substance of being a man. Sports are in a realm of confrontation and domination promoting memory, fantasy and identity.
The participation of women/girls in sports has presented a threat to traditional gender ideology. This is the reason why women have not been included in sports for so long or told to play sports emphasizing beauty, grace and co-ordination.
"Tomboy Syndrome"- this is a remnant of old social boundaries
- girls get older and they are socialized about the ideas of "femininity", hearing cultural messages that being a tomboy will interfere with meeting expectations for attractiveness, lifestyle and self presentation.
- playing sports is accepted, but the cuteness of being a tomboy during childhood usually disappears during adolescence.
*If women don't conform to "dominant definitions of femininity" as they play sports, they may still be socially marginalized and face obstacles in their social lives.
*sex testing pre 1968 - present yourself nude to a panel of judges to prove femininity.
*sex testing post 1968 - take cells from mouth, perform Barr body test to see chromosomal profile
Masculinity/Femininity Double Standards
- In athletics as in "the real world" there are double standards in place that are based on old traditional gender stereotypes.
Ex: off field violence, public nudity activities, sexual exploits, body tattooing, clothing/dress
Homosexuality and Sports
Traditionally based on the two gender classification system athletes, there are some who fall outside the gender classification system: gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, & trans-gendered
- In sports, especially male sports, homophobia is widespread and people avoid the topic of homosexuality with a "don't ask, don't tell" atmosphere.
- ironically people know that gay men/lesbians play sports, but discussion about this is avoided.
* the exceptions is the openly gay/lesbian play, watch or participate in programs that have developed an inclusive culture
*The irony about sports sexuality and homophobia is that sports often focus our attention on finely conditioned, attractive bodies at the same time that we carefully discuss sports in a non sexual term.
Strategies used for "identity management"
being completely closeted
passing as heterosexual
covering lesbian identity
being "out" by not covering identity in all situations
being "out" by revealing identity only to trusted others
being an open gay/lesbian in sports & the rest of their lives
Changing Ideology and Culture - masculinity/femininity
Alternative Definitions of Masculinity/Femininity | |
Traditionally men’s behaviour in sports are “natural”
* Males apply this ideology to their lives and “force their way” upon others. | Traditionally women’s behaviour in sports
|
.
Create a New Way of “Doing Sports"
programs to promote lifetime sport participation, emphasizing partnership, teamwork & skills
promote an ethic of care & connection between teammates & opponents
programs providing coaching/admin. Opportunities for women for more empowerment.
programs bringing boys/girls & men/women together in shared sports experiences
Gender equality depends upon redesigning sports from inside and out reflecting the values & identifying themselves in terms of the dominant definition of masculinity. Not only should we allow women to play sports as men have, but also to provide a wide range of choices when it comes to organizing, playing and giving meaning to sports.
RACE AND ETHNICITY
RACE - category of people regarded as socially distinct because they share genetically transmitted traits believed to be important by people with power & influence in a society.
ETHNICITY - it refers to a cultural heritage of a particular group of people. This is NOT based on a biological or genetically determined trait. It is based on characteristics associated with cultural traditions and background.
Ethnic Group - is a category of people regarded as socially distinct because they share a way of life and a commitment to the ideas, norms, and material things that constitute that way of life
Minority Group - is a sociological term used to refer to a socially identified collection of people who experience discrimination, suffer social disadvantages because of discrimination, and have a strong, self-consciousness based on their shared experiences of discriminatory treatment.
- Scientists have used classification systems that divide humans into distinct racial groups based on mental characteristics, brain size, skin color, and many combinations of head shape, hair texture, stature, nose shape and skin color.
- as a result we have discovered dozens of races, subraces, collateral races, and collateral subraces.
Most popular racial classification systems are based on continuous traits (skin color, etc).
Hypo-decent - "one drop rule" developed in America, meaning if they had "one drop of black blood" he or she would be defined as "Black". In America this was done to stop Blacks from getting property in inheritances, etc.
*over the past 300 years the "one drop rule" has created some confusion"
Ex. Tiger Woods? Cablinasian = Caucasian + Black + Indian + Asian
Racial Ideology in Sports-Euro American History
- European ideas of race were developed in the colonization period of the 1700's.
- they assumed that they were the norm, and everyone else was deviant inferior
- this allowed for 17th to 20 th Century beliefs that non whites were mentally inferior and primitive.
-these beliefs were used to justify the colonization and exploitation of these peoples.
-in America, these views allowed slavery to exist and flourish in North America.
Sport Performances in Blacks and Whites
- skiers from Austria and Switzerland are "great" but race doesn't play a role.... they live in the mountains.
- we never hear… Canadian hockey players owe success to "strong ankle joints, instinctive eye-hand- foot coordination, and an innate tendency to not sweat"?
- Black athletes are oftentimes praised for their "natural or instinctive qualities rather than experience, strategy, motivation, and intelligence.
Joe Louis from the NY Times "The magnificent animal.…... he eats, he sleeps, he fights.. I see in this colored man something so cold, so hard, so cruel that I wonder to his bravery. Courage in the animal is desperation. Courage in the human is something incalculable and divine”
*seemingly White success in sports has to do with environment rather than genetics meanwhile
- genetic explanations are used to explain the success of Black athletes.
Sport Participation
pre 1950's - Whites avoided playing against Blacks
since the 1950's-Black people have "seemingly" come to dominate football, baseball & basketball... In the NCAA, this represents 4 of 44 major sports.
participation among middle class whites remain significantly higher than the rest of the population.
Sports Illustrated was so bothered by the lack of Whites in sports that they had an issue devoted to "What Ever Happened to the White Athlete?"
Dynamics of Racial/Ethnic Relations in Sports
- it is believed that there is a level playing field for athletics and that all barriers have been removed, personal prejudices and stereotypes have been controlled and discrimination has been eliminated…… In reality…. many of these stereotypes, prejudices and barriers still exist.… but we're working on change.
Eliminating Racial & Ethnic Exclusion in Sport Participation
when people with power & control benefit financially if discrimination and exclusion are eliminated.
when individual performances can be measured precisely & do not depend primarily on the subjective assessments of scouts/coaches.
when members of an entire team benefit from the achievements of teammates.
when superior performances by athletes do not lead to promotions in the organization or control over fellow players
when team success doesn't depend on friendships and off the field social relationships between teammates.
when athletes are subordinate to the power & authority of coaches, managers, administrators, and owners in the organizational structure of a sport or sport team.
Prospects for Change
- sport leaders at all levels should be encouraged to sponsor training sessions on racial/ethnic diversity.
- there are always new things to learn about the perspectives of those whose experiences and cultures are different from our own.
SOCIAL CLASS
Social Class - refers to categories of people who share an economic position in society based on a combination of their income, wealth, education, occupation, and social connections. Social classes exist in all industrial societies, because there are economic inequalities and differences in life chances among those in the society.
Life Chances - odds for achieving economic success and gaining economic power.
Social Stratification - concept used to refer to structured forms of economic inequalities that are part of the organization of everyday social life.
*people from lower-social class backgrounds have fewer opportunities to achieve economic success and gain economic power than have people from upper social classes.
Rich are in a better position to become wealthy, powerful, and well connected meanwhile children from lower classes lack the influence and social networks connecting them with education and career opportunities.
Class Relations - the ways that social class is incorporated into social processes in society.
Sports and Economic Inequality - money and economic power exert significant influence on the meaning, organization, and purpose of sports in society.
- some believe that economics has nothing to do with sports, but without economic resources, formally organized sports couldn't be developed, scheduled, or maintained.
How important are class relations?
Of the top 100 most powerful people in sports..
0 are coaches
9 are athletes!
*athletes have star power and are marketable… otherwise, there will always be another.
Of the top 25
8 are executives from media organizations
8 are from sponsor corporations
2 from sports management companies
16 from sport organizations
1 athlete
*Tiger Woods was the only non white on the top 25 for 2002.
Participation Patterns
high income = high participation because organized sports are a "luxury item"
higher income individuals participate in: golf skiing, tennis, sailing (exclusive sports).
Even "grass roots" movements in Canada and the US are limited to upper/ middle class because people of lower class may not have time/inclination/energy to participate in physical activity.
*ironically, being of lower class has been stigmatized as laziness... when quite possibly, they physically work the hardest but don't reap the rewards for their efforts.
*of significant note, members of the lowest class, when playing sports may see it as a venue for future success (college scholarships, profession, etc). This can lead to a bolstering of socio-economic level while participating in sports.
- In women it is also difficult to be active in the lower/middle class, once children enter the equation.... time constraints hinder their athletic lives (upper class can hire childcare more readily).
- class and race can be tied together in the American examples, however in homogeneous societies, the economic factors play huge roles in the participation in sports.
Participation in Sports-Changing the Pattern
increase public funding
reduce/cut out participation fees
privatization of sports...
community involvement
corporate sponsorship
Attending Sporting Events
recreational sports are still free
highschool and college sports stay affordable (for the most part)
minor league sports remain family friendly
Professional sports are ridiculously costly.
*spectators are segregated based on seating, no longer by black or white, but by green.
Sports spectatorship is tied directly to economic resources and consequently social class.
Social mobility - refers to the changes in wealth, education, and occupation over a person's lifetime or from one generation to the next in families.
Sports Related Opportunities
number of career opportunities is limited, for athletes, these are short term.
opportunities for women are still limited.
opportunities for minorities are growing but still are limited.
Entry Barriers - one has to be an outstanding character with exemplary skill before being noticed.
Retention Barrier - (among Black athletes) in the NBA marginal white players tended to be re-signed to contracts while similarly skilled marginal Black players tended to be released.
Post-Playing Careers Among Former Athletes
IF there is a connection to career success, it manifests in:
Competing in sports may allow for the completion of academic degrees, develop skills, and extend knowledge of the world outside of sports.
increased support from significant others improves overall development.
opportunities to make contacts.
provided resources to participate in future activities.
expands experience, thus developing the identity and abilities
High Level Retired Athletes - What now?
reconstruct identities in terms of activities, abilities, and relationships unrelated to sport participation.
renegotiating relationships with family/friends so that they support the new identity with little to do with playing sports.
Athletic Scholarships and Occupational Success
upward mobility in society by using sports is tied almost directly to athletic scholarships.
4.9 million students in NCAA institutions in 2001 and only 111,600 had "athletic aid" (partial scholarships/ tuition waivers, etc) and 23,000 had "full rides" (tuition, room, food).
Who Comes Out Ahead?
- These scholarship athletes often play on sports teams (US-football/basketball) that generate millions of dollars that are used to fund "non revenue" sports (tennis/volleyball/golf).
*Ironically, the lower graduation rate is in the revenue sports (made up of lower/middle class students) while the graduation rate is higher in the non-revenue sports (made up of upper class students).
*Do young people on athletic scholarships take full advantage of this opportunity?
SPORTS AND THE MEDIA
Media - refers to various means of communication. For example, television, radio, and the newspaper are different types of media. This includes radio, tv, newspapers, magazines, books, movies, video games, and the Internet
Characteristics of Media
- PC and Internet have propelled us into a transition from an era of sponsored & programmed media for mass consumption into an era of personally generated and constructed media.
- extremely pervasive among the youth of our society, media plays an enormous role in our cultural picture.
Print Media - newspapers, magazines, and fanzines, books, catalogs, event programs and trading cards.
Electronic Media - radio, tv, film, video games, Internet, online publications (commentary, words, images).
*media - collectively provides information, interpretation and entertainment.
connects us to the world around us
brings us information, experiences, images, and ideas (that would otherwise not be part of our lives).
*This information is selected for us to consume, and construct our sense of reality. Usually media content is edited and re-presented.
FIVE GOALS OF MEDIA - The people provide information based on their interest:
making profits
shaping values
providing a public service
building reputations
artistic expression
Privately Owned Media - done for profit making, sponsorship, expanded markets, commodification and competition.
State Owned Media - dominant interests are shaping values & providing a public service.
Those who make decisions about content and programming act as filters selecting images and messages represented in the media. They usually emphasize images representing the dominant ideologies of society as a whole. Therefore the media often serves those who have power and wealth.
- In the past, the media has emphasized: consumerism, individualism, competition, and class inequality.
*in North America, media is protected under our Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the US Bill of Rights
In sports, those who control the media select which sports will be covered as well as the commentary that will be emphasized in the coverage.
In the 1996 Atlanta Olympics, NBC strategically created entertaining drama by representing analysts with "plausible reality”. This was done by withholding information, to frame events in their terms, even though they knew those terms to be contrary to what was expressed by the event. This turns sports into "sportainment".
The Internet - characteristics
- Internet changes media connections with the world. We are given access to potentially unlimited information, interpretation and entertainment. There is some real time interaction, while others are post event commentaries.
- there is no need for sequential programming on the Internet.… everything can be at our own pace.
- in the near future, the Internet appears to be either:
a) the method for democratizing social life and freely sharing ideas/information without constraints of private interests.
b) the means of expanding capital, increasing productivity and consumption, reproducing the values that drive market economies and maintaining the notion that corporations are the source of pleasure/excitement.
*Theoretically the Internet can provide each of us with the ability to create our Own spectator sport realities and experiences.
Sports and the Media - two way relationship
- media intensifies and extends process and consequences of commercialization
- each influences the other in a reciprocal relationship.
Sports Depends on the Media
- people played sports long before the media began to represent the events.
*Today many sports still do not receive any media attention.
- sports are unique forms of entertainment because they require the media to provide a combination of coverage and news.
*sports is unique because there is a vast discussion of statistics, important plays, records, standings, overall performances, of players/teams, upcoming games, relevance of game as a whole
- Without media, popularity and revenue generating potential of commercial spectator sports would be limited. Information generates interest, and interest generates revenues from the sale of tickets, suites, club seats, concessions, parking and merchandise. After the event, the sport becomes a news item of interest for fans, whether they attended or not.
As a result - teams realize a need for coverage and accommodate reporters/photographers/comm
All commercial sports depend on media, especially TV. Without TV contracts, commercial success is unlikely for spectator sports. TV revenue can generate 100's of times the money that ticket sales can
because of massive TV contracts, teams make more money. Because the teams make more money, athletes can demand higher salaries turning athletes into national/international celebrities who use their status to endorse products worldwide. Putting sporting events on the Internet will only enhance the role of media in sports.
Media Depends on Sports
there is a massive amount of media dedicated to sports. There are 1000's of sports magazines, books, radio, movies, talk shows, etc.
the Internet, Twitter, Instagram, docs, book publishing and movies don't depend on sports, but do utilize sports.
newspapers and tv are most dependent on sports.
*AOL bought Time Warner... E media joins with the world's biggest media company..... What happens when all free flow information is controlled by companies?
Images and Narratives in Media Sports
sports is re-presented to the audience with selective narration.
An NFL game is a representation about people's ideas about football, social life, human beings, what is important in the world.
sports that are difficult to cover & present are ignored.
sports are "hyped" by the media, exaggerating spectacular, inventing/focusing rivalries and manufacturing reasons that events are important and should be read about.
there is an emphasis on elite sports, with emphasis on winning & heroic actions.
media audiences select versions of sports to represent.
Themes
success themes
race/ethnicity themes
masculinity/femininity themes
Other theme-nationalism, individualism, teamwork, aggression (mental and physical)
Themes in Media Images and Commentary - in North America-stressed conventional ideology
order, control, discipline
gender differences
national boundaries
individual accountability
consumption = happiness
race/ethnicity
Media Impact on Sports Behaviors
active participation - kids copy what they see
attendance at sports events
gambling on sports
audience experiences
Sports Writers/ Sports Announcers-not the same job…. One does a commentary/critique, the other describes sporting events via play-by-play or highlight packages.