Reformation in Germany: Martin Luther

Introduction

Week five focuses on the history of Christianity, particularly the Reformation period.
Martin Luther is a central figure in the Reformation in Germany.

Late Middle Ages Context

Luther lived during the late Middle Ages, a time of transition in Western Europe.
Feudalism was declining, while capitalism and urban environments were developing.
The period was marked by plagues, starvation, bad weather, and wars.

Germany and the Holy Roman Empire

Germany, encompassing much of Central Europe, consisted of separate duchies loosely confederated into the Holy Roman Empire.
The Holy Roman Emperor's authority dated back to Otto I in the 10th century.
Decisions concerning the church were made by a diet, an assembly of important princes or electors.
Electors chose the Holy Roman Emperor, a secular title, from among the ruling princes and kings.
By the 15th century, the Habsburgs of Austria were almost always chosen as Holy Roman Emperors.
Society was divided into nobility, knights, and peasants, with a growing class of merchants and small business owners emerging.

Practices of the Catholic Church

The sacrament of confession, or penance, was significant during this time.
Its origins trace back to the 3rd century with Cyprian's policies during persecutions.
The Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 mandated that believers confess sins to their priest at least once a year and perform assigned penance.
The sacrament included contrition (feeling sorry for sins), confession (identifying sins to a priest), absolution (priest proclaiming forgiveness), and penance (spiritual discipline assigned by the priest).
Late medieval piety emphasized justice under a strictly enforced legal standard.

Doctrine of Purgatory

Concerns arose about the fate of those who died after receiving grace but before obtaining sufficient grace.
Purgatory was introduced as an intermediate stage where remaining sins could be purged until eternal life was merited.
This doctrine significantly influenced the development of indulgences.
Purgatory also served as pastoral care, alleviating anxiety among the devout who feared hell.
Uncertainty about the sincerity of contrition further intensified anxieties.
The institutional church's portrayal of purgatory varied, sometimes depicting it as a place of horrors akin to hell.

Indulgences

The doctrine of indulgences was officially based on a 1343 papal bull issued by Clement VI.
Indulgences had an older history, dating back to the Crusades, but were ratified at the Fourth Lateran Council.
In 1380, Pope Boniface VIII declared a year of jubilee, allowing indulgences to be procured through pilgrimage or purchase, marking the beginning of the indulgence trade.
Clement VI officially instituted the doctrine of indulgences in 1343.
The rationale behind indulgences was that Christ had given the church, through Peter, the power to forgive sins, and the Pope, as Peter's successor, held this authority.
Merits from Christ's treasury of grace could be shared with those deserving of it in life or purgatory.
Indulgences were applied to those who had died in faith, offering solace to concerned loved ones.
A common sales pitch in Western Europe, especially Germany, was: "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs."

Indulgence Controversy

A major controversy erupted over indulgences, particularly involving Pope Leo X and Albert of Brandenburg (Albert of Mainz).
Albert, from the influential House of Hohenzollern, sought to become the Archbishop of Mainz, making him the primate of Germany.
A deal was struck where Albert would pay the Pope, borrowing funds to be repaid through the sale of indulgences.
Half of the sales proceeds would go to the papacy to fund the completion of Saint Peter's Basilica.
Pope Leo X essentially sold the archbishop position to Albert to raise funds for the Basilica.
Albert's policies on selling indulgences differed from previous methods.
Recipients didn't have to go to confession or worship, and indulgences were valid even if the purchaser wasn't sincere.
Johann Tetzel, a Dominican friar, was hired as a salesperson, known for his promotional flair.
Tetzel's sales pitches included claims that indulgences made sinners cleaner than baptism.

Early Life of Martin Luther

Born in 1483, Martin Luther's father was a common servant in a copper mine who later became an owner.
Luther's father pushed him to succeed.
Luther studied law at the University of Erfurt but had a life-changing experience during a thunderstorm at age 21.
He vowed to devote his life to the church if saved from the storm.
He entered an Augustinian monastery in 1505, against his father's wishes, and was ordained a priest.
He studied theology to prepare for teaching.
Luther, like Augustine, was tormented by his sinful nature and practiced deep prayer, fasting, sleep deprivation, and self-flagellation.
The abbot of the monastery sent him on a pilgrimage to Rome, where he witnessed immoral behavior among priests and bishops.
Later, the abbot sent him to Wittenberg as a theology professor.

The Tower Experience

In Wittenberg, Luther experienced what is known as the "tower experience."
He discovered that the righteousness of God does not refer to the punishment of sinners but is good news.
Luther understood the righteousness of God as a gift given to those who receive it through faith.
The faithful are released from the burden of striving for righteousness, as it is already theirs as a gift.
This insight became central to the Reformation.
Believers can see themselves as righteous and affirmed by God despite their shortcomings.
Luther's insight did not lead him to reject Catholic theological inheritance entirely.
He saw salvation as a process of collaboration between grace and human will.

Luther's Critique of Indulgences

Luther opposed the indulgence trade because it contradicted the idea of salvation by grace alone (sola gratia).
The sale of indulgences suggested that people could do something to save themselves or their loved ones.
Luther viewed the purchase of indulgences as a preparatory act for receiving grace.
His critique of indulgences is outlined in his 95 Theses.

The 95 Theses

Luther's 95 Theses were an invitation to scholarly debate that had a significant impact.
He nailed them to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517.
The theses were translated, printed, and distributed throughout Germany within two weeks, aided by the printing press.
Luther sent copies to his bishop, Albert of Mainz, unaware of the financial stakes involved.
The bishop sent the theses to Rome, prompting Pope Leo to intervene.
The Holy Roman Emperor also requested the Pope's intervention.

Main Ideas of the 95 Theses

All church teachings should be based on the Bible.
The Pope cannot free people from purgatory, as the clergy have no special powers.
Christians can only be saved through faith.
The Bible does not offer indulgences as a way out of sin.

Theology of the Cross

Luther's theology emphasized the ultimate paradox of the cross.
Christian faith must embrace the paradoxical nature of the cross.
All human works and wisdom are questioned by this paradox.
Only God can forgive sins; no pope or priest can.
People must be willing to humble themselves for God's glory.
He attacked the scholastic theology of glory, contrasting it with the theology of the cross.

Attempts to Silence Luther

Pope Leo offered Luther the position of a cardinal if he would stop his criticisms, but Luther declined.
At the Diet of Augsburg, Cardinal Thomas Cajetan met with Luther, but the meeting did not go well.
Luther challenged papal authority, advocating for a consularist position.
He called for a council to settle the dispute, arguing that the Pope was not infallible and the authority of a council was superior.
Cardinal Cajetan ordered Luther's arrest, but Luther found protection from Frederick the Wise of Saxony.

Leipzig Disputation

A debate between John Eck and Luther occurred in Leipzig.
Eck manipulated Luther to acknowledge that the church is built on Christ, not Peter, and that the Council of Constance may have erred in condemning Jan Hus.
Eck claimed that Luther was a Hussite and therefore a heretic.

Papal Bull and Treatises

Pope Leo issued a papal bull charging Luther with 41 instances of deviation from church teaching and practice, ordering him to recant within 60 days or face excommunication.
Luther defied the Pope and wrote three famous treatises in 1520:
- An Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation: Challenged the foundations of church authority and interpretation of Scripture.
- The Babylonian Captivity of the Church: Critiqued the sacramental system, denied transubstantiation, and affirmed the real presence in the Eucharist (consubstantiation).
- The Freedom of a Christian: Focused on faith as a real element in the sacraments.

Diet of Worms and Exile

In 1521, Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, ordered Luther to recant his books at the Diet of Worms.
Luther refused, and Pope Leo excommunicated him from the Catholic Church.
The Edict of Worms condemned Luther as a civil criminal.
Frederick the Wise had Luther kidnapped and taken to Wartburg Castle for his safety.

Translation of the Bible

While in exile at Wartburg, Luther began translating the Bible into the vernacular German.
By 1534, he completed the German Bible, which prompted Bible study and spread Reformation ideas.
It popularized vernacular translations and increased literacy thanks to the printing press.
Luther's translation unified the German language and he is often referred to as the father of modern German language.

Limitations to Luther's Reformation

Andreas Karlstadt's radical reforms (e.g., removing images from churches) were considered too radical.
The Zwickau Prophets advocated revolutionary means for social justice, leading to the Peasants' Revolt.
Thomas Müntzer incited peasants against authorities, interpreting Luther's "freedom of a Christian" as demanding an egalitarian society and wealth redistribution.
Luther refused to support the peasants.
Luther's stance on the peasants and his later harsh writings against Jews (in "On the Jews and Their Lies") have been criticized.

Establishment of the Lutheran Church

After returning to Wittenberg, Luther continued the work of the Reformation and established the Lutheran Church.
He wrote commentaries on every book of the Bible except Revelation, as well as large and small catechisms.

The Lord's Supper

Luther rejected the Catholic concept of transubstantiation.
Affirmed that Christ is really present in the sacrament, although the elements themselves don't turn into body and blood, they still remain bread and wine.

Attempts at Protestant Unity

Disagreements over the Eucharist fractured Protestant unity.
Philip of Hesse attempted to unite reformers like Martin Bucer and John Oecolampadius, but they could not reach a consensus.

Political Manoeuvrings

Philip of Hesse, John Frederick of Saxony, and Ulrich of Württemberg worked to form a Protestant coalition.
Charles V was occupied because of war with the Turks.

Peace of Augsburg

The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 allowed German princes to choose the religion of their territories (cuius regio, eius religio).
By 1528, most of Northern Germany was Lutheran.
The Second Diet of Speyer in 1529 allowed Roman Catholics to be free in Lutheran territories, but Lutherans were not free in Roman Catholic territories, leading to the term "Protestant."
The Diet of Augsburg in 1530 presented the Augsburg Confession.

Later Years and Legacy

Philip Melanchthon was named Luther's successor, Luther himself dies in 1546.
Luther's ideas gained a following due to the printing press and princes who sought to lessen the power of the Roman Catholic Church.
Followers called themselves Lutherans and adopted his changes, including Bible translations and services in their language.
They rejected five of the seven sacraments and emphasized the sermon and simplified the Catholic mass.
They banned indulgences, pilgrimages, and prayers to the saints and allowed the clergy to marry.
*(Sola Scriptura):Scriputre alone
(Sola Fide)Faith alone: becomes then justification by faith alone, grace, and the theology of the cross around Christ.These would become the basic principles of the Reformation.