Chapter nine notes- ACA US History 101
I. Introduction (Andrew Jackson's Character)
Andrew Jackson, a Tennessee lawyer, survived a near-fatal duel in 1806, demonstrating extreme toughness and resolve.
This duel symbolized his tenacious, tough, and vengeful character, which defined his military and political career.
He became an enduring and controversial figure, representing different American perspectives.
What event in 1806 exemplified Andrew Jackson's toughness and foreshadowed his career?
Andrew Jackson survived a duel in Logan County, Kentucky, where he was shot in the chest but remained standing to return fire and mortally wound his opponent. This event symbolized his tenacity, toughness, and vengefulness, which characterized his later military and political dealings.
II. Democracy in the Early Republic
Many of the nation's early political leaders, including Alexander Hamilton and Elbridge Gerry, feared an excess of democracy.
They believed too much popular participation would undermine good order and prevent a secure republican society.
Despite elite fears, American democratic impulses grew, with citizens actively participating by voting, demonstrating, giving speeches, and criticizing leaders.
Political elites learned to cultivate popular favor, leading to figures like Andrew Jackson symbolizing the democratizing spirit.
How did many of the American founders view democracy?
Many founders, such as Alexander Hamilton and Elbridge Gerry, viewed democracy with suspicion, fearing that an "excess of democracy" would lead to disorder and destabilize the republican society.
How did ordinary citizens express their democratic impulses in the early republic?
Ordinary citizens participated in politics through voting, public demonstrations, partisan speeches, petitioning Congress, and openly criticizing the president, asserting their sovereignty not just on election day.
III. The Missouri Crisis
Early 19th-century American politics saw a shift toward sectional conflict between the North, South, and West.
Northern states grew wary of Virginia's disproportionate influence and the South's unified stance on protecting slavery.
The Missouri Crisis erupted when Missouri applied for statehood as a slave state in 1819, threatening the balance of power.
Congressman Tallmadge proposed an amendment to prohibit more enslaved people and free children of enslaved people at age twenty-five.
The Tallmadge Amendment passed in the House but was defeated in the Senate due to southern resistance.
The Missouri Compromise of 1820 admitted Missouri as a slave state, Maine as a free state, and divided the Louisiana Purchase territory along the 36∘30′36∘30′ line, prohibiting slavery north of it.
The crisis made sectionalism impossible to ignore, split the Democratic-Republican party, and highlighted the volatility of the slavery debate, alarming figures like Thomas Jefferson.
What was the primary issue that created the Missouri Crisis?
The primary issue was Missouri's application for statehood as a slave state, which threatened to upset the balance of political power between free and slave states in Congress.
What were the three main provisions of the Missouri Compromise of 1820?
The Missouri Compromise had three parts: 1) Missouri was admitted as a slave state; 2) Maine was admitted as a free state; and 3) slavery was prohibited in the Louisiana Purchase territory north of the 36exto30′36exto30′ parallel.
How did Thomas Jefferson react to the Missouri Crisis?
Thomas Jefferson was deeply alarmed, calling the question "a fire bell in the night" that filled him with terror and considering it "the [death] knell of the Union," fearing it could lead to disunion and civil war.
IV. The Rise of Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson (1767–1845) rose from humble frontier beginnings to become a lawyer, enslaver, general, and the seventh president.
His early life included joining the Revolutionary War at thirteen, being captured by the British, and losing his family to disease, fostering a hatred for Great Britain.
He prospered in Tennessee as a lawyer and acquired land and enslaved laborers.
During the War of 1812, he earned the nickname "Old Hickory" and led decisive victories in the Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans.
In 1818, he invaded Spanish Florida during the First Seminole War, leading to the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819, which ceded Florida to the U.S.
In the 1824 presidential election, Jackson won the popular vote but lost the presidency to John Quincy Adams in the House of Representatives due to a "corrupt bargain" with Henry Clay.
He easily won the 1828 election against Adams, but his wife Rachel died before his inauguration amidst attacks on her character.
Jackson appealed to ordinary white Americans, particularly from the South and West, promising to defend their interests against the elite.
What were some key events during Andrew Jackson's military career that contributed to his fame?
Jackson led a decisive victory in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend during the Creek War in 1814 and famously defeated a large British invasion force at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815.
What was the "corrupt bargain" of 1824?
The "corrupt bargain" referred to the belief among Jackson's supporters that Henry Clay, after using his influence in the House of Representatives to help John Quincy Adams win the presidency in 1824, was then appointed Secretary of State by Adams, bypassing the will of the popular vote winner, Andrew Jackson.
V. The Nullification Crisis
Southerners expected President Jackson to abolish the unpopular Tariff of 1828, known as the "Tariff of Abominations," which protected northern manufacturing at the expense of the South's economy.
South Carolina, facing economic problems and fears of slave uprisings (e.g., Denmark Vesey conspiracy), saw the tariff as a precursor to federal intervention against slavery.
Vice President John C. Calhoun secretly drafted the "South Carolina Exposition and Protest" in 1828, asserting the doctrine of nullification.
Calhoun argued that states, as creators of the Union, could nullify unconstitutional federal statutes and even secede.
Jackson fiercely opposed nullification, declaring "Our Federal Union: it must be preserved" and that "disunion, by armed force, is TREASON."
South Carolina nullified the 1828 and 1832 tariffs, prompting Jackson to pass the Force Bill, authorizing military enforcement.
Henry Clay brokered a compromise that gradually lowered tariffs, leading South Carolina to rescind its nullification of the tariffs but nullify the Force Bill.
The crisis linked secession and states' rights and highlighted enslavers' political power and anxiety about slavery's future.
What was the "Tariff of Abominations" and why did southerners oppose it?
The "Tariff of Abominations" was the Tariff of 1828, an import tax that protected northern manufacturing by raising prices on European goods. Southerners opposed it because it forced them to buy more expensive northern goods and led to retaliatory European tariffs that reduced purchases of southern raw materials.
What doctrine did John C. Calhoun propose in response to the tariff, and what did it assert?
Calhoun proposed the doctrine of nullification, asserting that states, as sovereign entities that formed the Union, had the right to declare a federal law unconstitutional and therefore "null, void, and no law" within their borders.
How did President Jackson respond to South Carolina's nullification of the tariffs?
Jackson responded dramatically, denouncing nullification as treasonous, issuing a proclamation against it, and persuading Congress to pass a Force Bill, which authorized him to use military force to enforce federal tariffs.
VI. The Eaton Affair and the Politics of Sexuality
The Eaton Affair, or "Petticoat Affair," was a social scandal involving John Henry Eaton, Jackson's Secretary of War, and his wife, Margaret O’Neale Timberlake.
High society women in Washington, D.C., led by Vice President Calhoun's wife, Floride Calhoun, ostracized Margaret Eaton due to rumors of an affair before her first husband's death.
Jackson, recalling similar attacks on his late wife Rachel, vehemently defended Margaret Eaton, viewing the attacks as a challenge to his authority.
The scandal led to the resignation of four cabinet members, including John Eaton, and contributed to the split between Jackson and Calhoun.
What was the "Eaton Affair" and who was at its center?
The Eaton Affair was a social scandal in Washington, D.C., during Jackson's presidency, centered on Margaret O’Neale Timberlake Eaton, the wife of Secretary of War John Eaton, who was ostracized by other cabinet wives due to rumors about her character and the circumstances of her marriage.
Why did Andrew Jackson take the Eaton Affair so personally?
Jackson took the affair personally because his own late wife, Rachel, had been subjected to similar slanderous attacks regarding the circumstances of her marriage, which he believed contributed to her death. He also saw the attacks on the Eatons as an affront to his presidential authority.
VII. The Bank War
The Second Bank of the United States, established in 1816, aimed to stabilize the American economy but was also a for-profit institution with private stockholders.
Andrew Jackson and his supporters, many being Jeffersonians, distrusted the bank, blaming it for the Panic of 1819 and accusing it of political corruption.
In 1832, while running for re-election, Jackson vetoed a bill to reauthorize the bank's charter, calling it unconstitutional and "dangerous to the liberties of the people."
He argued the bank served the rich and powerful at the expense of ordinary citizens and had too much power not granted by the Constitution.
In 1833, Jackson further weakened the bank by directing federal funds to be deposited into selected state banks, known as "pet banks."
The "Bank War" galvanized Jackson's supporters, now calling themselves Democrats, around a "democratic" opposition to concentrated financial power and led to the formation of the Whig Party, who mocked Jackson as "King Andrew the First."
Why did Andrew Jackson oppose the Second Bank of the United States?
Jackson opposed the Second Bank because he considered it unconstitutional, dangerous to the liberties of the people, a tool for the rich and powerful to get richer at everyone else's expense, and a corrupting influence on politicians.
What was the outcome of the Bank War on the American political landscape?
The Bank War led to the formation of the modern Democratic Party, which rallied around opposition to the national bank and strong executive power, and it also prompted the formation of the Whig Party, composed of Jackson's adversaries who opposed his "king-like" exercise of power.
VIII. The Panic of 1837
The victory over the Bank of the United States unexpectedly worsened the country's economic problems.
A boom from 1834-1836, driven by high cotton prices, credit, and specie influx, led to a vast real estate bubble and reckless lending by a growing number of state-chartered banks.
Federal actions, including increasing the number of banks receiving federal deposits and the Specie Circular (requiring hard currency for land purchases), exacerbated the situation.
The economic bubbles burst in late 1836, leading to bank runs in May 1837, where banks suspended specie payments.
The Panic of 1837 triggered a severe economic depression from 1839-1843, marked by falling prices, decreased economic activity, bank closures, and state loan defaults.
Many Americans blamed Jackson's economic policies, despite the panic occurring after he left office.
What were some contributing factors to the Panic of 1837?
Factors included high cotton prices, abundant credit, an influx of gold and silver from Europe, speculative land sales, poorly regulated lending practices by state banks, and federal policies like increasing the number of federal deposit banks and the Specie Circular.
What was the Specie Circular and how did it affect the economy?
The Specie Circular, issued in July 1836, required payment in hard currency (gold and silver) for all federal land purchases. This drained eastern banks of specie, contributing to the bursting of economic bubbles and the ensuing financial panic.
IX. Rise of the Whigs
The Panic of 1837 provided an opportunity for the Whig Party, formed in 1834 as an anti-Jackson coalition of National Republicans, pro-slavery southerners, and antislavery Yankees.
Henry Clay helped unite the diverse anti-Jackson leaders and gave the party its anti-monarchical name.
Despite their initial regional divisions, the Whigs gained significant support after the Panic of 1837 and became well-organized, holding their first national convention in 1839.
In 1840, they nominated General William Henry Harrison for president, running a "log cabin and hard cider" campaign, and John Tyler for vice president.
Harrison won the election but died after just thirty-one days in office from unclear reasons, making his term the shortest.
Vice President John Tyler, a former Jackson supporter, adopted policies that resembled Jackson's, vetoing charters for a new Bank of the United States.
Tyler's actions led to his cabinet's resignation and his expulsion from the Whig Party, earning him the nickname "His Accidency."
The Whig Party struggled to unite beyond opposing Democrats and eventually dissolved by 1856 over the divisive issue of slavery.
How did the Whig Party originate and what was its primary unifying factor?
The Whig Party originated in 1834 as a coalition of various anti-Jackson groups, including National Republicans, pro-slavery southerners, and antislavery Yankees. Their primary unifying factor was their opposition to Andrew Jackson and his executive style, which they perceived as tyrannical.
What was unique about William Henry Harrison's presidency?
William Henry Harrison holds the record for the longest inaugural address and the shortest term in office, dying just thirty-one days into his presidency in 1841.
X. Anti-Masons, Anti-Immigrants, and the Whig Coalition
The Whig coalition drew strength from movements like the Anti-Masonic Party and the nativist American Party (Know-Nothings).
Freemasonry, a secular fraternal order, generated suspicion due to its secrecy, elitism, and rituals, despite prominent members like Washington and Jackson.
The Anti-Masonic Party formed in the 1820s in upstate New York following the disappearance and probable murder of William Morgan, who planned to expose Masonic secrets.
This movement capitalized on public dissatisfaction by promoting the idea that a secret society controlled the republic.
The Anti-Masonic Party merged into the Whig Party after poor performance in the 1832 elections.
Nativism, or anti-immigrant sentiment, particularly targeted Catholic immigrants from Ireland and Germany, fearing they would bring religious violence and undermine American institutions.
Examples include the 1834 burning of a Catholic convent near Boston and warnings from figures like Samuel F. B. Morse and Lyman Beecher about Catholic influence.
What was the immediate cause for the formation of the Anti-Masonic Party?
The Anti-Masonic Party formed in the 1820s in upstate New York following the suspicious disappearance and probable murder of William Morgan, who had announced plans to publish an exposé of Masonic rituals, leading many to believe that Masonry was a dangerous secret society.
Why did nativists fear Catholic immigrants in the early 19th century?
Nativists feared Catholic immigrants because they professed different beliefs, spoke unfamiliar languages, practiced alien cultural traditions, and were seen as potentially bringing religious violence from Europe, undermining American political systems, and being subservient to the Pope rather than independent citizens.
XI. Race and Jacksonian Democracy
Racial inequality significantly limited American democracy, expanding freedom for poor white men while eroding it for Black Americans.
By 1839, most states had explicitly limited or prohibited Black voting rights, even for wealthy men like James Forten.
Social tensions worsened race relations, leading to competition for work and housing among new Irish Catholic immigrants, working-class whites, and nonwhites.
The 1830s saw a wave of urban riots, including attacks on antislavery meeting houses and Black churches in Philadelphia, and the murder of abolitionist editor Elijah Lovejoy.
Popular culture, like minstrel shows featuring white actors in Blackface as "Jim Crow," perpetuated cruel racial stereotypes.
Some whites, particularly skilled laborers and the lower middle class in northern cities, joined free Black activists, supporting abolition and boycotting slave-produced goods.
The ultimate question of American democracy was whether it had room for people of different races, religions, and classes; the majority, including both Democrats and Whigs, believed it did not.
How did racial discrimination affect Black voting rights in the early 19th century?
Between the Revolution and 1839, most states adopted new laws that either explicitly limited or completely prohibited Black voting rights, even for wealthy Black men, despite simultaneous expansion of suffrage for poorer white men.
What was "Jim Crow" in antebellum American popular culture?
"Jim Crow" was a minstrel show character, depicted by white actors in Blackface, who portrayed a clownish enslaved man. This character, and the performances it inspired, turned cruel racial stereotypes into a popular form of entertainment during antebellum America.