Exam 4: Health Psychology, Psychological Disorders, and Therapy Review
Health Psychology and the Study of Well-Being
Definition and Scope of Health Psychology:
Health psychology is a subfield of psychology that applies psychological principles to the prevention and treatment of physical illness and the promotion of health.
It examines the interface between biological, psychological, and social factors (the biopsychosocial model) and how they influence health and illness.
Differentiation Between Stress and Stressors:
Stress: This refers to the psychological and physiological response of the body to perceived challenges or threats. It is the internal reaction to the external environment.
Stressors: These are the specific events or stimuli that trigger the stress response. Stressors can be categorized into several types:
Catastrophes: Unpredictable, large-scale events that create a tremendous need to adapt and include things like natural disasters or war.
Significant Life Changes: Personal transitions such as marriage, divorce, or the death of a loved one.
Daily Hassles: Minor, everyday annoyances like traffic, long lines, or irritating coworkers that can accumulate over time to cause significant stress.
Physiological Effects of Stress:
The Fight-or-Flight Response: The sympathetic nervous system is activated, releasing catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) to prepare the body for immediate action.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Proposed by Hans Selye, this model describes three stages of the body's response to stress:
Alarm Reaction: Initial mobilization of resources to meet the threat.
Resistance: Coping with the stressor while the body remains in a state of high arousal.
Exhaustion: If the stressor lasts too long, the body's resources are depleted, leading to vulnerability to physical illness or collapse.
Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis: A major neuroendocrine system that controls reactions to stress; it involves the release of cortisol, which regulates metabolism and immune response but can be harmful if levels remain chronically elevated.
Personality and Its Relation to Stress:
Type A Personality: Characterized by competitiveness, impatience, urgency, and especially hostility. Research suggests that the "hostility" component is a significant predictor of heart disease.
Type B Personality: Characterized by a relaxed, patient, and easygoing nature. These individuals generally experience lower levels of stress-related health issues.
Optimism vs. Pessimism: Optimists tend to see stressors as temporary and specific, leading to better health outcomes and longevity, whereas pessimists see them as permanent and pervasive.
Coping Mechanisms and Promotion of Health
Contrast of Coping Strategies:
Problem-Focused Coping: Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. This is most effective when we feel we have control over the situation (e.g., studying for an exam).
Emotion-Focused Coping: Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction. This is often used when we perceive the situation as beyond our control (e.g., venting to a friend about a loss).
Methods to Reduce Stress:
Relaxation: Techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation or mindfulness meditation can lower blood pressure, reduce heart rate, and decrease oxygen consumption.
Aerobic Exercise: Sustained, oxygen-consuming exercise that increases heart and lung fitness. It has been shown to reduce stress, depression, and anxiety by increasing the production of endorphins and neurotransmitters like serotonin.
Factors Contributing to Happiness:
Subjective Well-Being: The self-perceived feeling of happiness or satisfaction with life.
Contributing Factors: Factors often linked to happiness include high self-esteem, optimistic outlook, close friendships or a satisfying marriage, work and leisure that engage skills, a meaningful religious faith, and adequate sleep and exercise.
Misconceptions: Research indicates that happiness is not strongly related to age, gender, or physical attractiveness.
Foundations of Psychopathology
Definition of Psychopathology: The scientific study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (causes), and treatment.
Criteria for Identifying Abnormal Behavior:
Behavior is typically classified as abnormal or disordered if it meets several of the following criteria (the "Four D's"):
Deviance: Thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that depart from social norms.
Distress: Symptoms that cause significant emotional pain or suffering for the individual.
Dysfunction: Impairment in daily functioning, such as being unable to hold a job or maintain relationships.
Danger: Behavior that poses a risk of harm to the individual or others.
Causes and Roots of Psychological Disorders:
Psychological disorders are understood through a multi-faceted lens:
Biological Roots: Genetic predispositions, brain chemistry imbalances (neurotransmitters), and brain structure abnormalities.
Social/Cultural Roots: Environmental stressors, cultural expectations, poverty, and social support systems.
Cognitive/Psychological Roots: Maladaptive thought patterns, learned helplessness, and emotional regulation issues.
The DSM-V (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition):
Purpose: To provide a standardized system for classifying and diagnosing mental disorders. It provides specific criteria for each disorder to ensure consistency among clinicians.
Utilization: It is used for clinical diagnosis, research, and insurance billing.
Specific Psychological Disorders
Schizophrenia:
Symptoms: Characterized by a split from reality. Includes hallucinations (false sensory experiences), delusions (false beliefs), disorganized speech, and negative symptoms (like flat affect or withdrawal).
Etiology: Research points to genetic factors, excess dopamine activity in the brain, and prenatal environmental stressors (like viral infections).
Anxiety Disorders:
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Continual, inexplicable feelings of dread and tension.
Panic Disorder: Sudden, intense episodes of terror known as panic attacks.
Phobias: Persistent, irrational fears of specific objects or situations.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): Characterized by persistent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and/or repetitive behaviors (compulsions).
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Haunting memories, nightmares, and social withdrawal following a traumatic event.
Mood Disorders:
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): A state of hopelessness and lethargy lasting several weeks.
Bipolar Disorder: Alternating between the hopelessness of depression and the overexcited, hyperactive state of mania.
Major Depressive Episode (MDE):
Symptoms: Depressed mood most of the day, markedly diminished interest in activities (anhedonia), significant weight loss or gain, insomnia or hypersomnia, and fatigue.
Prevalence: MDD is the "common cold" of mental health, with prevalence rates generally higher in women than in men, affecting approximately of the population at some point in their lives.
Suicide: Facts and Myths:
Myth: People who talk about suicide won't actually do it. Fact: Talking about suicide can be a plea for help and a major warning sign.
Myth: Asking someone about suicide will plant the idea in their head. Fact: Asking often provides relief and opens a path for help.
Dissociative Disorders:
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): A rare condition where a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities.
Dissociative Amnesia: Loss of memory for personal information, often following a traumatic event.
Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder: Feelings of detachment from one’s own body or environment.
Psychotherapy and Biomedical Treatment
Goals of Psychotherapy: To help individuals overcome difficulties, reduce symptoms, and achieve personal growth through interaction with a trained professional.
Approaches to Psychotherapy:
Biomedical Therapies: Focus on treating the brain directly through medication (e.g., SSRIs for depression, antipsychotics for schizophrenia) or procedures like Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT).
Psychoanalytic Therapy: Based on Freudian theory; uses techniques like free association and dream analysis to uncover unconscious conflicts.
Behavioral Therapy: Uses principles of learning (classical and operant conditioning) to eliminate unwanted behaviors. Examples include systematic desensitization and token economies.
Cognitive Therapies: Focuses on identifying and changing distorted thinking patterns.
Rational Emotive Therapy (RET): An aggressive cognitive therapy by Albert Ellis that challenges "irrational" beliefs.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): An integrated approach that aims to change both self-defeating thinking and maladaptive behaviors (Beck’s approach).
Humanistic Therapy: Focuses on the present and conscious thoughts. Carl Rogers’ Client-Centered Therapy emphasizes unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuineness.
Treatment Modalities: Therapy can be delivered in various formats, including individual therapy, group therapy, family therapy, and couples therapy.
Key Issues in Therapy: Includes the therapeutic alliance (the bond between therapist and client), the efficacy of different treatments for specific disorders, and the importance of cultural competence in the clinical setting.