The 1960s: Kennedy, Johnson, and the Vietnam War

The Election of 1960 and the Cold War Strategy

The Candidates of 1960 * Democrat: John F. Kennedy (JFK) * Described as charismatic, handsome, and recognized as a war hero. * Religious Concern: Catholics feared his religious affiliation meant the Pope would influence American politics. * Republican: Richard Nixon * Served as the popular Vice President under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. * Known as a former leader of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC).
The First Televised Debates * Television viewers overwhelmingly believed Kennedy won due to his charismatic appearance. * JFK managed his appearance by wearing black suits and makeup to "pop" on camera and in photos. * Radio listeners (a significantly smaller audience) believed Nixon won the debate.
Election Results * Kennedy Victory: JFK won the election with $303$ electoral votes ( $56.5\%$ ) and $34,227,096$ popular votes ( $49.7\%$ ). * Nixon Performance: Nixon received $219$ electoral votes ( $40.76\%$ ) and $34,107,646$ popular votes ( $49.6\%$ ). * Minor Candidates: Independent candidate Harry F. Byrd received $15$ electoral votes ( $2.75\%$ ). Other minor candidates accounted for $501,643$ popular votes ( $0.7\%$ ).
Cold War Strategy: Flexible Response * Kennedy believed the United States needed preparation for any type of conflict. * Flexible Response: This strategy challenged Eisenhower’s previous policy of "Massive Retaliation." * Increased Defense Spending: Kennedy supported a rise of $\$6 \times 10^9$ in defense spending to prepare against nuclear attack, as stated in his State of the Union address. * Green Berets: Creation of elite special forces branches.
The Peace Corps * Established in $1961$ , sending volunteers around the world to assist developing nations. * Missions of Freedom: A movement of young men who joined to promote global democracy and peace (and sometimes to avoid the Vietnam draft). * Kennedy noted that the Soviet Union already had hundreds of professionals (scientists, engineers, doctors) prepared to serve abroad for the cause of world communism.

Camelot: Perceptions vs. Reality of the Kennedy White House

War Heroism * Perception: Kennedy was a hero who saved fellow soldiers after his PT-109 ship was sunk by a Japanese destroyer, earning medals for bravery. * Reality: Kennedy was described by some as undeservingly awarded, as he had taken his crew into territory they were not supposed to be in, leading to the loss of lives.
Intellectual Standing * Perception: Kennedy was an intelligent author who won a Pulitzer Prize in history for the book Profiles in Courage. * Reality: The book was actually written by his research assistant, Theodore Sorensen.
Family Life * Perception: Popularly perceived as a dedicated family man through staged photography with his wife, Jackie Kennedy, and children. * Reality: Kennedy was a womanizer who had numerous affairs, including relationships with Marilyn Monroe and Judith Exner.
Health and Vitality * Perception: Television portrayed him as young, healthy, and charismatic. * Reality: Kennedy suffered from severe back and stomach problems, leading to a dependency and abuse of painkillers.
Anecdote from the Secret Service: According to a friend of Mr. Milhouse (former head of the Kennedy Secret Service), Jackie Kennedy once threw a pair of underwear on a meeting table, telling JFK, "I don’t care what you do, but keep their panties out of my bed."

Remnants of the 1950s "Sweet Era"

Culture and Social Norms: * The board game LIFE became a national craze, emphasizing marriage and settling down with many children. * Coca-Cola was distributed in iconic green bottles. * Commonalities included beef on charcoal grills and the presence of asbestos in classrooms. * Sports clubs were called gymnasiums and were only used by "health nuts." * Anxiety over crime was rare; people did not check Zone Improvement Codes (ZIP codes) before mailing letters. * Citizens maintained a blind trust in the media and government. * Media was not intrusive regarding the private lives of celebrities or politicians. * A lack of nutritional labels, warnings on food, or warnings on cigarette packages.

Foreign Policy Crises: Cuba and Berlin

Communist Cuba * In $1959$ , a communist revolution led by Fidel Castro overthrew the Cuban government. * Castro accepted military and economic aid from the USSR and exhibited strong anti-American sentiment, exiling or executing opponents.
Bay of Pigs (April 1961) * A failed U.S. attempt to remove Castro from power using CIA-trained Cuban exiles. * The Cuban military easily stopped the attack; the event was a major embarrassment, and JFK publicly took responsibility.
The Berlin Crisis and the Wall * By $1961$ , as many as $1,500$ refugees per day fled East Berlin to West Berlin to escape Soviet control. * Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev threatened the U.S. and demanded the closure of the border. * August 1961: The Soviet Union constructed the Berlin Wall around West Berlin to prevent East Germans from fleeing. The wall became the primary symbol of the division between Western freedom and communism.
The Cuban Missile Crisis (October 1962) * U.S. spy planes discovered Soviet Medium Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM) sites in San Cristobal, Cuba, pointed at the U.S. * Kennedy established moving naval "quarantine" (blockade) of Cuba and announced the 13-day standoff to the public, bringing the world to the brink of nuclear war. * Resolution: Negotiated settlement where the USSR removed missiles from Cuba, the U.S. removed missiles from Turkey and promised not to invade Cuba. * Outcome: Led to the first nuclear weapon treaty, banning above-ground testing.

JFK Assassination and Administration Legacy

The Assassination (November 22, 1963) * Kennedy was shot twice (in the shoulder and head) while traveling in a convertible during a motorcade in Dallas, Texas. * Warren Commission: Investigated the event and determined that Lee Harvey Oswald was the lone assassin.
Initiatives of the Kennedy Administration: * Economics: Increased the minimum wage, improved the welfare system, and embraced deficit spending. Passed the Equal Pay Act of $1963$ to improve wages for women. * Civil
Rights: Introduced legislation in $1963$ to fund school desegregation and prosecute voting rights violations. * Space Exploration: Declared the goal of landing a man on the moon by $1970$ . * Foreign Aid: Created the Peace Corps ( $1961$ ) and the Alliance for Progress to improve relations with Latin America.

Lyndon B. Johnson and the Great Society

Election of 1964 * Democrat: Lyndon B. Johnson (LBJ): Campaigned on the Great Society anti-poverty platform; won $44$ out of $50$ states. * Republican: Barry Goldwater: Extremely conservative; viewed as an extremist and lacked support within his own party.
The New Frontier vs. The Great Society * New Frontier (JFK Focus): International influence, anti-poverty programs, Civil Rights, and the Space Race (Neil Armstrong eventually walked the moon in $1969$ ). * Great Society (LBJ Focus): Domestic problems, specifically the "War on Poverty," Education, Healthcare, and "Keep America Beautiful."
Key Great Society Legislation and Programs: * Civil Rights Act of 1964: Banned discrimination based on race or sex in public facilities and created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. * War on Poverty: Established Job Corps (skills), VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America), and Head Start (pre-school for underprivileged children). * Healthcare: Medicare (health insurance for those age $65+$ ) and Medicaid (health insurance for the poor and disabled). * Education: Elementary and Secondary Education Act funded schools in impoverished communities. LBJ noted that $1\times 10^5$ high school graduates annually could not afford college. * Environment: "Keep America Beautiful" focused on improving water, air, and reducing pollution.

The Origins of the Vietnam War

Historical Context * France occupied Indochina until $1954$ . An uprising by the Viet Minh led to independence. * Geneva Accord: Divided the country at the $17^{th}$ parallel into North and South Vietnam.
Divided Leadership * North: Ho Chi Minh: Communist leader backed by the Soviet Union. * South: Ngo Dinh Diem: Ruthless fundamentalist dictator backed by the U.S.; he was unpopular for forcing Catholicism on the population.
U.S. Rationale * Containment: The policy to stop the spread of communism. * Domino Theory: Eisenhower’s belief that if one country in Southeast Asia fell to communism, surrounding countries (Laos, Cambodia, etc.) would follow.
Escalation * Buddhist Protests: Monks set themselves on fire to protest Diem's regime. * Assassination of Diem (November 1963): A coup supported by JFK and assisted by the CIA overthrew and killed Diem. * LBJ’s Policy: Johnson stated, "I am not going to lose Vietnam," leading to increased forces.
The Enemy: Viet Cong * Southern rebels supporting Ho Chi Minh. * Communist guerrillas described as "farmers by day and soldiers by night"; notably used child soldiers. * Utilized the Ho Chi Minh Trail, a supply network through Laos and Cambodia.

The Vietnam Conflict: Strategy and Controversy

Gulf of Tonkin Incident (August 1964) * LBJ announced that two U.S. ships had been attacked in international waters by North Vietnam. * It was later revealed the attacks were a mistake or fabrications; Johnson lied to gain support for involvement. * Tonkin Gulf Resolution: Congress gave Johnson authority to take "all necessary measures," providing him complete control of military action without a formal declaration of war.
Military Operations and Tactics * Operation Barrel Roll (December 1964): Secret bombing of the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos (a neutral state). * Operation Rolling Thunder (March 1965): Mass bombing of North Vietnamese infrastructure (railroads, bridges). Failed to stop the enemy. * Techno War: Belief that advanced U.S. technology would win the war. Total bombs used exceeded the amount used in all of WWII ( $8 \times 10^6\text{ tons}$ ). * Chemical Warfare: Operation Ranch Hand used Rainbow Herbicides including Agent Orange, Agent White, Agent Blue, Agent Purple, Agent Pink, and Agent Green for defoliation and crop destruction. Napalm (jellied gasoline) was used to spread wildfires. * Operation Igloo White: Use of infrared and motion sensors. * Operation Cedar Falls: Soldiers sent into Viet Cong tunnels; Operation Jungle Busting used heavy tanks to roll over vegetation.
Combat Realities * American Commander: William Westmoreland. * $20\%$ of U.S. deaths were caused by U.S. weapons. * Ground troops were often used as "bait" to draw out enemy forces for bombing.

Domestic Impact and the End of the War

A Divided Nation * Hawks: Supported the war effort. * Doves: Opposed the war. * Draft Inequities: Most soldiers were draftees, disproportionately poor or minorities. College students could receive deferments.
Tet Offensive (January 1968) * A massive surprise attack by North Vietnam and the Viet Cong on over $40$ Vietnamese cities during the Tet holiday ceasefire. * The turning point of the war; though a military loss for the North, it was a massive morale victory for them and a psychological blow to the U.S.
My Lai Massacre (March 16, 1968) * U.S. soldiers under Lieutenant Calley massacred the village of My Lai (Pinkville). * $504$ Vietnamese dead (women, children, elderly); victims were raped and mutilated. * Soldier Ron Ridenhour investigated and wrote to the President and Pentagon. * Lieutenant Calley was sentenced to life (reduced to $3$ years house arrest); others were acquitted.
Nixon’s Presidency and "Vietnamization" * Nixon won the $1968$ election promising to end the war and appealing to the "Silent Majority." * Vietnamization: Replacing U.S. troops with South Vietnamese soldiers. By $1972$ , only $24,000$ troops remained. * Madman Theory: Secretly bombing neutral Cambodia to cut off the Ho Chi Minh Trail.
Student Activism and Kent State (May 4, 1970) * Protests at Kent State University led to the burning of the ROTC building. * National Guard fired into the crowd, killing $4$ students and wounding $9$ others ( $61$ shots in $13$ seconds).
Conclusion of the War * Paris Peace Accords (January 1973): Formal agreement for U.S. withdrawal and return of POWs. * Fall of Saigon (April 29, 1975): North Vietnamese forces took the capital. Vietnam unified under communism. Cambodia and Laos also fell to communism. * Final Toll: Over $58,000$ Americans dead, $300,000$ wounded, and $2,500$ MIAs/POWs. The war cost at least $\$150 \times 10^9$ .