Civil Rights Movement: Post-Brown Desegregation, Little Rock, Boycotts, and Sit-Ins

The Slow Pace of Desegregation: Analyzing the Post-Brown Landscape ($1954$-$1964$)

• The Impact of Brown v. Board of Education ($1954$): In the ten years following the landmark Robert's Florida (sic) / Brown v. Board of Education decision, the actual desegregation of public schools in the South was extremely limited and resisted. The Supreme Court's direction for desegregation to proceed with "all deliberate speed" was often interpreted by states as an invitation to delay.

• Mapping School Integration ($1964$): Data on the percentage of black students attending schools with white students ten years after the decision highlights significant regional disparities:

  • Extreme Resistance (Dark Gray States): States with only $0\%$ to $1\%$ of black students in integrated schools.
  • Partial Integration (Striped States): States such as Texas, Tennessee, and Florida showed integration levels between $1.5\%$ and $6\%$.
  • Higher Intent States: Oklahoma, Missouri, Kentucky, and West Virginia approached desegregation with more apparent intent, resulting in higher integration rates than their neighbors, though they remained predominantly segregated.

• Constitutional Basis for Brown v. Board: The Supreme Court relied on the Equal Protection Clause of the Constitution to guarantee protections against segregation.

  • It was not based on "Due Process of Law" (which relates to the rights of those accused of crimes) or "State Control of Interstate Commerce."
  • While "Freedom of Assembly" is a crucial element of the later Civil Rights Movement, it was not the legal basis for the $1954$ decision.

The Crisis at Little Rock, Arkansas ($1957$)

• Defiance of the Court: By $1957$, many Southern states had yet to begin the desegregation process. In the capital of Arkansas, Little Rock, the school board finally decided to begin integration by admitting nine African American students to Central High School.

• The Governor's Obstruction: Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas openly defied the federal desegregation order. He deployed the National Guard—a military force usually under a governor's control—to stand on the school steps with rifles and deny the black students entry.

• Role and Function of the National Guard: The National Guard is a military force trained like any other soldier (basic training plus weekend commitments). They are typically deployed by governors for state emergencies, such as:

  • Natural disasters (e.g., flood control and rebuilding river banks after hurricanes, such as the floods near Lake Placid and Wilmington).
  • Public health crises (e.g., processing people for vaccines at Maxey Hall during the COVID pandemic).
  • Staffing shortages (e.g., serving as supplemental corrections officers in New York state prisons when shift needs are not met).

• President Eisenhower's Response: President Dwight D. Eisenhower was forced to act when a governor openly defied the Supreme Court.

  • Nationalization: Eisenhower "nationalized" the Arkansas National Guard, shifting their authority from the state governor to federal control.
  • Enforcement: He ordered federal troops to protect the nine students, ensuring they had safe access to the school and protecting them from hostile white mobs.
  • Historical Rarity: This was a rare instance of a president using military force against or among fellow Americans, similar to Washington during the Whiskey Rebellion or Hoover during the Bonus March.

• The "Lost Year": In a final act of resistance, the Governor of Arkansas shut down the entire city school district for the $1958$ school year to prevent further desegregation, leaving all students without a school to attend.

Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott ($1955$-$1956$)

• The Catalyst: Rosa Parks, a professional working in an office and the secretary of her local NAACP chapter, was a trained nonviolent activist. Her refusal to move was a deliberate act of protest against the city's bus segregation laws.

• The Incident: On Montgomery buses, a line was painted in the aisle to separate the races. Parks was seated in the first row behind this line. When the white section filled up, a white man felt entitled to her seat so he wouldn't have to move further back. Parks refused to move, leading to her arrest and the production of her now-famous mugshot.

• The Emergence of Martin Luther King Jr.: MLK Jr. rose to national prominence during this event, serving as the spokesperson and media contact for the civil rights leaders in Montgomery.

• The Economic Boycott Strategy:

  • Black citizens made up $60\%$ of the bus ridership in Montgomery.
  • The community organized an eleven-month boycott, significantly cutting into the bus company's revenue.
  • Participants walked to work or utilized carpools and free rides from black cab drivers.
  • Outcome: After $11$ months, the bus company agreed to desegregate the system to regain the lost $60\%$ of their business. This proved that militant action was unnecessary if the community remained committed to a nonviolent cause.

The Sit-In Movement ($1960$)

• Greensboro, North Carolina: The movement began when four college students sat at a segregated lunch counter at a Woolworths (a national chain store similar to a variety store but without a pharmacy).

• Strategy of Civil Disobedience:

  • While Woolworths sold items like soap and housewares to black customers, the lunch counters were segregated based on local Southern norms.
  • Students sat in the "whites only" section and ordered coffee. When denied service, they refused to leave, occupying seats that would otherwise generate revenue for the store.
  • This was not a boycott (they were willing to pay); it was civil disobedience—intentionally breaking unjust laws in a peaceful manner.

• Spread and Escalation: The movement spread to nine states. Protesters often faced verbal and physical abuse, including having hot coffee poured on them. Public opinion shifted in favor of the protesters as news reports highlighted the brutality of those enforcing segregation.

• Victory: National pressure eventually forced Woolworths to change its company policy and end segregated lunch counters. Four seats from the original Greensboro counter are now preserved in the Smithsonian Museum.

The Freedom Riders ($1961$)

• Testing Federal Law: In $1958$, the Supreme Court ruled that segregation on interstate transportation (buses and trains crossing state lines) was unconstitutional. In $1961$, activists staged "Freedom Rides" to test if this ruling was actually being enforced.

• The Journey: Activists rode buses from Washington D.C. toward New Orleans, Louisiana. They practiced integrated seating and used restrooms and cafeterias designated for the opposite race to break social norms.

• Violence in Alabama:

  • While the riders faced hostility in Virginia and the Carolinas, the situation turned deadly at the Alabama state line.
  • The KKK ran one bus off the road and threw Molotov cocktails through the windows, then beat the riders as they escaped the smoke.
  • In Birmingham (noted by MLK as the most racist place in America), the local police chief withdrew all officers from the station, allowing a KKK mob to attack the arriving riders.

Questions & Discussion

• Q: What does the map tell us about the effectiveness of Brown v. Board?
  A: It shows the decision was only slightly effective in the short term. States "dragged their feet" and showed very little intention of following the law.

• Q: What was the constitutional basis for the $1954$ Brown decision?
  A: Equal protection of the law.

• Q: In $1957$, why did Eisenhower send federal troops to Little Rock?
  A: To enforce the court decision to desegregate public schools after the governor used the National Guard to block it.

• Q: How did Martin Luther King Jr. first emerge as a leader?
  A: By leading the bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama.

• Q: Which strategy did students use at the Greensboro lunch counter?
  A: Civil disobedience (they were willing to spend money, so it was not a boycott).