Studies of Religion 2
Studies of Religion
Course Content
2026 Edition
Table of Contents
Religion in Australia Post 1945 1
Compulsory SST Glossary 1
Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities 2
Religious Expression in Australia - 1945 to the Present 6
Religion & Non-Religion 12
Compulsory SST Glossary 12
The Religious Dimension in Human History 13
New Religious Expressions 17
Non-Religious Worldviews 20
Buddhism 23
Compulsory SST Glossary 23
Significant Person - XIV Dalai Lama 24
Environmental Ethics 27
Significant Practice - Wesak 29
Christianity 32
Compulsory SST Glossary 32
Significant Person - Paul of Tarsus 33
Environmental Ethics 37
Significant Practice - Saturday/Sunday Worship 39
Islam 42
Compulsory SST Glossary 42
Significant Person - A’isha bint Abu Bakr 43
Environmental Ethics 46
Significant Practice - Hajj 49
Religion & Peace 51
Compulsory SST Glossary 51
Christianity 52
Islam 56
Religion in Australia Post 1945
HSC Section I = 10 x multiple choice + 1 x 5-mark PEEL
Compulsory SST Glossary
Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities
Religious Expression in Australia post 1945
Dreaming
Kinship
Kanyini
Totems
Ancestor spirits
Metaphysical connection
Rites of passage
Ceremonial life
Obligations to land and people
Inextricable connection
Terra nullius
Kinship groups
Stolen generations
Missions
Land rights
Native Title
Mabo
Wik
Census data
Immigration
Denominational switching
Disenchantment
New Age Religions
Secularism
National Council of Churches
Ecumenical
Interfaith dialogue
Reconciliation
Contemporary Aboriginal Spiritualities
discuss how Aboriginal spirituality is determined by the Dreaming
Dreaming is the spiritual aspect of Aboriginal religion that encapsulates both the spiritual and physical dimensions, giving meaning to all aspects of life. Watch this video
Kinship
Kinship (Dreaming family) - the fabric of society; a sophisticated network of relationships governing the interaction between clans, creating belonging and responsibilities
Elder Bob Randall: kinship or KANYINI is “the completeness of the oneness”
Rules and obligations for each kinship relationship, and extends to land, dancing, ceremonies, hunting parties, raising children
Totems unify clans under common ancestral beings, fosters a “metaphysical connection of Dreaming kinship”.
If your totem is Kangaroo, your clan is not allowed to hunt kangaroo; totems help to preserve ecosystem from overhunting of particular species (eg. balance rites)
Kinship is determined by tribe and family relationships, and creates a connection with: 1. Ancestor Spirits 2. The Land 3. The Dreaming
Ceremonial life
Purpose: 1. Rites of Passage 2. Passing on Social Information 3. Facilitating Personal Connections and 4. Facilitating Spiritual Connections
Dreaming exists in past present and future, ceremonies bring the Dreaming into the present, and also serve to pass on and maintain beliefs and practices - metatemporal
All ceremonies 1. acknowledge a creation event and 2. show the metaphysical presence of the Dreaming world in the real world
x
Obligations to the land and people
Aboriginal spirituality is inextricably connected to the land - they cannot be separated. The land of a particular tribe expressed their particular Dreaming
The land is the physical medium through which the Dreaming is lived out, and is the resting place of Ancestral Beings - they are believed to occupy sacred sites.
Rituals are connected to sacred sites where Dreaming events occur, called balance rites
The Land is the meeting point between Kinship and Ceremonial life - totem comes from Dreaming and Land
discuss the continuing effect of dispossession on Aboriginal spiritualities in relation to:
Separation from the Land
Terra nullius was the first policy of European Settlers - that nobody owned the land, and that the Aboriginal people were a “dying race”; this policy was replaced with one of protection - indigenous were evangelised by Christian missionaries, and moved into shanty towns on the outskirts of white society
“The all-embracing net of life and spirit which had held land, and people, and all things together as in tatters. The sustaining ceremonies could not be held, men and women could not visit their own birthplaces or carry out their duties to the spirits.” (Judith Wright, The Cry for the Dead, p. 27)
With no connection to land, totem and sacred sites, all connection to Dreaming was lost.
Separation from Kinship Groups
Separation from land led to breakdown of kinship groups, or Dreaming family. Tribes were moved and mixed with others, with no regard for inter-tribal relationships and kinship rules
Languages were lost, or severely restricted in their use
Psychological effect was massive, but unknown to Europeans, who were unaware of the deep ties to the land for kinship totem, language, ceremonies, and dreaming
Missions were small organisations set up by various Christian denominations around Australia with the purpose of evangelising Indigenous peoples, and contributed to separation from kinship groups through often separating children from parents to have a greater influence upon their education.
Without access to their Dreaming kin, one of the main purposes within an Aboriginal person’s life -- to fulfil their spiritual obligations -- was gone. No longer could they unite with kin in the performance of ceremonies and engage in reciprocal obligations and expectations, and pass these on. Thus a major reason for their very existence was lost.
The Stolen Generations
Due to being separated from kinship groups and the land, they lost their identity, culture, language, and spirituality. Considered by some to be a form of ‘cultural genocide’.
Children were taken away from their families due to government policy between the 50s and the 70s, particularly those who were of mixed heritage. This was done to assimilate into white culture, and abandon their traditional culture and spirituality. This was done in three forms: 1. Putting children into govt- or church-run institutions, 2. Adopting children into white families, or 3. Fostering children into white families.
Statistics show the lasting effect of being stolen away from kinship and spirituality: infant mortality three times higher than national average, three times more likely to suffer from lifestyle diseases (e.g. alcoholism/diabetes etc), unemployment six times higher.
Link Up was formed in 1980 to help those affected by dispossession, especially the Stolen Generations. “Link-Up (NSW) supports the healing journeys of those removed; delivering professional, culturally sensitive and confidential research, reunions and Social, Emotional and Wellbeing services to those over the age of eighteen.” Source.
PM Kevin Rudd in 2008 made an unreserved apology: “We apologise for the laws and policies of successive Parliaments and governments that have inflicted profound grief, suffering and loss on these our fellow Australians.” Source.
outline the importance of the following for the Land Rights movement:
Land rights is a religious-political movement to secure the rights of Aboriginal people to their land and ensure their religious, spiritual and cultural integrity is preserved (connection to Dreaming)
Native Title Watch this video
Court recognised Indigenous property rights in the Mabo decision of 1992
Native Title Act (1993) can’t prevail over freehold title such as farms, private property etc - only applies to Crown Land
Mabo
High Court of Australia ruled that Meriam people continued to have traditional right to possess and live on most lands of the island of Mer in the Torres Strait. This ruling set a precedent for Native Title land rights, and was a rejection of the idea of Terra Nullius
Native Title exists where continues connection to the land has been maintained
This led to the creation of the Native Title Act (1993)
Wik
Some farmers lease their land from the Government, called a Pastoral Lease. If an Aboriginal community live on the land leased by the government to a pastoralist (farmer) Native Title still exists, but if there is ever a conflict between them, the Pastoralists rights prevail over the tribe.
Native Title Amendment Act (1998) extinguished rights of Aboriginal tribes to negotiate for government owned land which the government wished to acquire, and replaced with the right to be “consulted” - considered a step backwards in Land Rights movement
analyse the importance of the Dreaming for the Land Rights movement
The Land Rights Movement (LRM) relies on the Dreaming for validity. Since ongoing spiritual affiliation with the Land is the required proof of entitlement, it is therefore the stories, songs, dances and sites relating to the Dreaming that constitutes the ‘evidence’ for a successful claim.
Problems can arise: in many Aboriginal cultures, knowledge is equal to ownership (only those who belong to the Dreaming can know the stories, rites, etc), and in the case of secret men’s or women’s business, the opposite gender must be excluded altogether in the investigative process - problematic if the Aboriginal Land Commissioner is of the opposite gender. Sacred sites are oftentimes also secret, with tribal members reluctant to share their locations.
With contrasting legal traditions, Western based on writing and Aboriginal based on an oral tradition, information relating to Dreaming can be considered unreliable, or dismissed as hearsay.
Native Title legislation and procedure could have a detrimental effect on Dreaming, as it has always been a fluid and evolving spirituality, with some Dreamings reflecting influences of Christianity after the arrival of white settlers. Since information is written and “set in stone”, this could ossify one of the most dynamic and living of religious traditions.
Religious Expression in Australia - 1945 to the Present
outline changing patterns of religious adherence from 1945 to the present using census data
Religious growth mainly seen outside of Christianity, especially in religions where high rates of immigration boost populations
Islam - 2016 2.5% → 2021 3.2% = ↑0.7% Trend - dramatic rise since 1945
Hinduism - 2016 1.8% → 2021 2.7% = ↑0.9% Trend - HUGE increase since 1986
Sikhism - 2016 0.5% → 2021 0.8% = ↑0.3% Trend - Intense growth due to immigration
Religious decline has most strongly affected Christianity, with reduced numbers across most denominations.
Christianity - 2011 61.1% → 2016 52% = ↓9.1% Decrease of more than 1m people
Catholicism - 2016 22.6% → 2021 20% = ↓2.6% steady decline
Anglicanism - 2016 13.3% → 2021 9.8% = ↓3.8% HUGE 7.3% decline since 2011!
Why are they declining so much?!
Pentecostal - 2016 1.1% → 2021 1% = ↓0.1% almost 5000 members lost
Uniting Church - 2011 3.7% → 2016 2.6% = ↓1.1% fast decline
Orthodox - 2016 2.1% → 2021 2.1% very small increase
The census includes the option of ‘No Religion’, which has been increasingly rising in popularity.
2016 30% → 2021 38.7% = ↑8.7% Trend - Due to the decline of traditional
religions, and more non-religious schools of thought becoming more prevalent.
Summary of all Census Data on Religious Affiliation from ABS. READ IT!
account for the present religious landscape in Australia in relation to:
Christianity as the major religious tradition
Christianity remains the largest religious tradition in Australia due to history (white settlement brought 90% Anglicans, 10% Irish Catholics, and a couple of Jews) and post-war immigration (Catholicism became dominant over Anglicanism due to large numbers of Southern- and Eastern-Europeans).
The Immigration Restriction Act (1901) ensured that Christianity remained dominant for a long time.
Immigration
Initial post-war immigration attracted British and Irish migrants to Australia with the Assisted Passage Migration Scheme (or Ten Pound Poms), but was eventually opened up to the rest of Europe. This kept the country Christian, but dramatically increased the number of Catholics (from Italy, Croatia, Poland, Malta, Hungary etc), increasing numbers by 6% between 1947-1966, and Orthodox (from Greece, Ukraine, etc). Catholic immigration continues today especially from South Sudan.
Small numbers of Jews migrated to Australia, peaking at 0.5% in 1966
White Australia Policy abolished in 1973. In the 1970s, the Vietnam War brought many refugees, both Catholic and Buddhist (since Vietnam was colonised by the French). Approximately 120,000 came to Australia on boats. 50% of all Australia’s Buddhist migrants came between 1986 and 1991. One third of all Australia’s Buddhists are Vietnamese.
83% of all Australia’s Hindus born outside Australia arrived before 1981. Only a quarter of the current Hindu population was born here.
Muslims first arrived as camel drivers from central Asia in 1882. The first significant numbers came in the late 1960s due to the Lebanese Civil War (the majority of Lebanese immigrants were Catholic, and most came before the Civil War). More refugees came in the 1990s from Bosnia, Somalia and Ethiopia. More recent refugees have come from Afghanistan and Iraq.
Denominational switching
Free movement between denominations is most often seen within Protestant variants. Catholics and Orthodox tend to be more or less loyal to their own denomination, especially the older generations. Those with an active faith (as opposed to nominal believers) are more likely to move than others.
Christians sometimes shop around for a denomination which suits their own beliefs or needs, which is a reflection of changing attitudes to what a church offers to a member of its congregation. Switchers prioritise spiritual fulfilment over loyalty to original denomination.
Disenchantment over mishandling of controversial situations (such as abuse) sometimes pushes adherents to switch denominations.
Family breakdown is another cause. Statistics show that of children of divorced families, Catholics are 1.7x more likely to switch to a moderate Protestant denominations, and 2.6x more likely to switch to a conservative Protestant denomination; offspring of moderate or liberal Protestant families are 2x more likely to switch to Catholicism.
Switching from liberal to more conservative denominations seems to be a trend, possibly due to stronger community ties and greater demands placed upon congregations, creating a sense of solidarity, or perhaps ‘otherness’.
Rise of New Age religions
What do they believe? Note that not all beliefs are common to all New Agers: (MAKAPU)
Monism - all that exists is from and united with a single spiritual source
Pantheism - all that exists is God; God is found everywhere and is in everything
Karma & Reincarnation
Aura - an energy field surrounding the body; detectable by trained individuals and can be manipulated for spiritual, mental and physical health
Universal Religion - all religions are paths up to the mountain of God
How do they practice? Note that not all practices are common to all New Agers:
Meditation - releasing oneself from conscious thought, often with chanting/mantras
Astrology - positions of planets can affect one’s life
Divination - fortune telling through objects like tarot cards, runes, etc.
Holistic health - healing techniques which incorporate spirituality, e.g. homeopathy, iridology, reiki massage, reflexology, etc.
Crystals - believed to possess healing energy
Channelling - making contact with the dead
Feng shui - the ancient Chinese practice of arranging space to achieve harmony with the environment; believed to benefit health, wealth and relationships
They have grown in popularity since the 60s and 70s due to several reasons:
Disillusionment with governments during and after the Vietnam War
The rise of movements such as feminism, civil rights and the sexual revolution
Dissatisfaction with the lack of ethical guidance from Christian churches
Growing emphasis on personal autonomy instead of community obligations
Secularism
Census data ‘no religion’ rose sharply from the 70s, and continues to increase dramatically
1947 0.3% → 1966 0.8% → 1976 8.3% → 1996 16.6% → 2011 22.3% → 2016 30.1%
Secularists believe that policies/decisions made by govt should be completely separate from religious influence, which they believe may jeopardise freedoms & democratic rights
Reasons for popularity include:
Widespread war-weariness of the 20th century (the bloodiest in history)
Major social changes (feminism, civil rights, sexual revolution) [ironically, churches support anti-war efforts and civil rights]
These led to a general distrust of institutional authority, and fostered an emphasis on enlightenment ideals of rationalism, science and logic.
Christian Research Association: “For many, WW1 raised questions about the validity and effectiveness of Christianity as the moral foundation of the western world.”
describe the impact of Christian ecumenical movements in Australia
The National Council of Churches [Ecumenical - CHURCHES working together]
An ecumenical organisation bringing together many Australian churches in dialogue and cooperation. 15 member churches. Orthodox joined in 60s -70s, Catholic Church in 1994
Safe Church Program - provides workshops and guidelines in making Churches safe for children and vulnerable adults - “The protection of the rights of and flourishing of all people is the shared commitment in our promotion of safe church and ministry environments.”
Covenanting Together is an ecumenical initiative - all member churches have agreed to pray together, 12 member churches share resources like buildings, 11 recognise others’ baptism, 2 share eucharist, 4 recognise each others’ ordained ministries (Holy Orders).
NSW Ecumenical Council
21 member churches, but some churches such as Baptist and Pentecostal have refused to join, limiting its impact
“The NSWEC is a means by which its member churches seek to live out the implications of the Gospel in Christian service by acting together for God’s purposes for the world.’
Ministry with Refugees Program - community education about asylum seekers/refugees, regular visits to detainees inside Villawood Immigration Detention Centre, support and funding for the House of Welcome for integration of immigrants.
Caring for Creation Program - “seeks to express practically [their] shared Christian commitment to addressing … climate change” - Feb 2010 launched ‘Meat-Free Day’ initiative, encouraging people to avoid meat one day a week.
evaluate the importance of interfaith dialogue in multifaith Australia
Interfaith = DIFFERENT RELIGIONS working together
Clashes between adherents of different religious traditions is not new in human history. Although it has not happened in Australia, nonetheless necessary to find methods of maintaining peaceful relations between different cultures. Due to the multicultural nature of modern Australian society, different religious traditions have found a place also. Dialogue is one of the first steps one can take to prevent conflict from arising, as it: 1. Begins when people meet each other 2. Depends upon mutual understanding and trust 3. Makes it possible to share in service to the community 4. Becomes the medium of authentic witness to peace
Columban Centre for Christian--Muslim Relations - serves to foster relationships with the Muslim community, and to address misconceptions, lack of understanding and stereotyping regarding Muslims that exist in the Christian community.
The Affinity Intercultural Foundation was established by a group of young Muslim Australians who wished to extend the interaction between the Muslim community and their fellow Australians.
Annual Abraham Conference, which plays an important role in promoting interfaith cohesion between Jews, Christians and Muslims and cooperation for the common good.
examine the relationship between Aboriginal spiritualities and religious traditions in the process of Reconciliation
Reconciliation is the process whereby Indigenous and non-indigenous citizens of Australia can move into the future with a new relationship based upon mutual recognition, understanding and respect. The mistakes and injustices perpetrated in the past must be fully acknowledged and dealt with, so that all can live in harmony together.
The Catholic Church has made strides in reconciliation since John Paul II visited Alice Springs in 1986 - “Your culture, which shows the lasting genius and dignity of your race, must not be allowed to disappear… Your songs, your stories, your paintings, your dances, your languages, must never be lost.”
Caritas’ Red Dust Healing Program is a cultural healing program written from an Indigenous perspective. It aims to engage Indigenous men, women and families to recognise and confront problems, hurt and anger in their lives, stemming primarily from rejection and grief.
The Shalom Gamarada Indigenous Residential Scholarship Program (shalom = Peace (Jewish); Gamarada = Friends (Gadigal)) is a jewish initiative established to make a contribution to closing the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians through higher education and by increasing the number of Indigenous professionals.
It is a program which awards scholarships to First Nations students studying at UNSW to reside at Shalom College – a Jewish residential college on the campus.
The scholarships give the students a room, three meals a day, academic support, pastoral care and access to the UNSW gym and team sports.
Slideshow on Reconciliation
Religion & Non-Religion
HSC Section I = 10 x multiple choice + 1 x 5-mark PEEL
Compulsory SST Glossary
The Religious Dimension
in Human History
New Religious Expression
Non-Religious Worldviews
Animism
Polytheism
Monotheism
Meaning
Purpose
Social cohesion
Social transformation
Statistics
Personal fulfilment
Hare Krishna
Baha’i
Wicca
Ethical guidelines
Wiccan Rede
Materialism
Scientific progress
Ecological awareness
Neo-paganism
Disenchantment
Atheism
Agnosticism
Rational Humanism
Scientific Humanism
Aspirations
Self-determination
Determinism
Transcendent
Human person
Social responsibility
Enlightened self-interest
The Religious Dimension in Human History
identify the following expressions of the religious dimension in human history
Animism [anima = life/soul + ism]
The belief that spirits inhabit all objects and have influence on people and natural events
These spirits may be good or evil
Most indigenous or tribal belief systems are animistic
The idea that nature reveals the divine (gods)
Since all natural objects had souls, every part of creation had to treat every other part of creation with respect
Animistic thought still features in the Australian Aboriginal, the Melanesian, Polynesian, the Micronesian and the Native American Indian cultures of today
Polytheism [poly = many, theos = god + ism]
Worship of many gods
Examples of polytheistic religious practice can be found in the Greco-Roman cultures, as well as in the Norse, Aztec, Egyptian and Sumerian traditions in the past, and Hinduism in the present.
Polytheistic deities are usually assigned jurisdictional powers, which are directly linked with their particular skill or talent
Henotheism - belief that one god is greater and is selected to worship among other gods
Monotheism [mono = one, theos = god + ism]
Worship of one god
Judaism, Christianity and Islam are monotheistic religions
Judaism is widely considered the first truly monotheistic religion in history
evaluate the place of the religious dimension in human history to provide:
Meaning and purpose for the individual
Provides a means of finding a place in the larger world
Allows people to:
Find direction e.g in making decisions
Feel support e.g in difficult times such as death
Celebrate life e.g birth
Discover values e.g agape (self-sacrificial) love
Make sense of the world and why things are the way they are e.g. creation
Social cohesion
Provides meaning and purpose for the community of believers
Religion can be conservative, maintaining and reinforcing social customs and values
Religion can provide the society with common goals and a collective focus - impetus for communal action e.g. Christian Crusades
Cohesion demonstrated through festivals e.g. Hindu Diwali, Christian Christmas ...
Religious rituals can provide community cohesion in times of disaster e.g. interfaith rituals after Bali bombings Interfaith service at St Mary’s Cathedral after NZ Mosque Attacks
(2002) and Christchurch Mosque attacks (2019)
Social transformation
Religion can be radical - shining light and criticism on structures, customs and values
Religion can provide a framework for an achievable vision of a better world
Religion can transform society e.g. Martin Luther King Jr and black rights in America
investigate statistical data of the current global distribution of the five major religious traditions
Official statistics are somewhat problematic - e.g. an atheist government may report that there is no religious observance in line with official government policy, which may not match reality
E.g. Buddhism listed as 7% does not include Chinese members, which would boost numbers considerably
Also need to distinguish between nominal adherents and committed believers
Christians currently largest religion in the world and their spread most closely resembles the spread of population
In Australia after WWII, immigration, the need for population growth, and the removal of the White Australia Policy brought larger numbers of Buddhists, Hindus and Muslims to Australia
Current #s
Change
Comments about countries
Christianity
~ 2.3 billion
~ 31% of world population
% of world population likely to be similar in 2050 to today.
About half of all Christians are Catholic.
Only about 10% of Christians live in a country where they are the minority.
Declining in Europe. More Christians in China (44 mil) than people in Australia.
Islam
~ 1.8 billion
23% of world population
Fastest growing - by 2050, it’s expected that Muslims will be nearing the numbers of Christians
Currently Indonesia has the most adherents, but by 2050 it’s expected to be India
Judaism
~ 14.5 million
~ 0.2% of world population
1939: 17 mil (peak in history)
1945: 11 mil
1970s: 13 mil
Plateaued till 2005
81% of all Jews live in Israel and the USA, evenly split across the two
Buddhism
~ 535 million
~ 8% of world population
Projected to decline to 5% of world population by 2050
Half of the world’s Buddhists live in China. Buddhist majority countries include Cambodia, Myanmar, and Thailand
Hinduism
~ 1.1 billion
~ 15% of world population
World % projected to stay fairly stable, although % of population in Europe likely to increase
Mainly India and the Asia-Pacific region.
India has the largest numbers. Nepal has the highest % of the country’s population
Additional Info: INTERACTIVE MAP
New Religious Expressions
[In the 2016 Australian census, ‘No religion’ includes secular beliefs (e.g. Atheism) and other spiritual beliefs (e.g. New Age), but does not breakdown to give specific numbers]
recognise the reasons for the rise of new religious expressions as people:
Search for personal fulfilment
Changing Social Landscape:
Modern societies often emphasise individualism, causing people to seek personal spiritual paths rather than traditional collective ones.
The erosion of traditional societal structures and norms has made room for diverse spiritual and religious expressions. Example: The New Age Movement, characterised by a mix of Eastern and Western spiritual traditions, appeals to many who desire a spiritual path that aligns with modern values and lifestyles.
Search for Personal Experience:
Many are seeking direct personal experiences of the divine or spiritual, rather than mediated experiences through religious institutions.
This has led to a surge in practices like meditation, spiritual retreats, and shamanic journeys. Example: The resurgence of shamanic practices in the West, where individuals engage in vision quests or use entheogens (e.g. psilocybin mushrooms) for direct spiritual experiences.
Seek ethical guidelines
Ideals of tolerance, universalism, environmentalism and moral relativism are embraced as basis upon which to make decisions
Pantheism - all that exists is God; God is all that exists - leads adherents to find the answers within themselves
Wicca works well for environmentalists through the worship of nature
Wiccan Rede - “If ye harm none, do what ye will” good for moral relativists - how?
Some NRTs often have no definitive right and wrong - moral relativism
Krishna, Baha’i and Wicca - generally make ethical choices designed for the overall betterment of humankind (find examples of how)
Seek to clarify their relationship with society
Overall patterns of similarities among the vast numbers of groups - Many will have an all-embracing, non-sectarian worldview
Some attracted to closed, separatist organisations (cults and other closed groups)
Emphasis on fulfilment of the individual over direct obligations to community, although serious followers view themselves as having certain responsibilities towards society at large
Promotes idea of a utopian age or a New World order where society will run smoothly and harmoniously and disease, discrimination and violence will cease to exist
Belief that social transformation will occur when sufficient numbers of people have been transformed
explain how the following have influenced the growth of new religious expressions and spiritualities:
The rise of materialism
2nd half of the 20th century saw a steep rise in affluence (a great deal of money & wealth) - consumer culture
People can define themselves more by what they have rather than their connectedness to community (rise of consumerism or affluenza)
New religious movements can thrive either by opposing this system of consumption (Hare Krishnas) or by joining it (Scientology - expensive self help courses)
Materialism can also mean an understanding of the universe as only being composed of material things - matter - that which can’t be measured doesn’t exist
Instant gratification from materialism has lead to spiritual emptiness which leads people to fill the void with new age religion
Scientific progress
Some say that the more science provides answers, the less religion is needed
Others - that unchecked progress of science and technology can be dangerous
Many new age religions have a pseudo-scientific basis e.g. numerology or healing and Scientology (dianetics) which appeals to many, as often science is seen as validating this new age philosophy. The association with science provides them with a degree of authenticity which many people find reassuring.
Examples of science leading to disenchantment:
Developments in the field of genetics has called into question the role of a divine creator in light of the capability of cloning different species.
Discoveries drawn from space exploration have raised new questions about the origins and development of our solar system.
Some people can reconcile these scientific discoveries with their traditional religious beliefs, but for others they raise significant challenges and they may look for new alternatives to their traditional religious beliefs
Growth of ecological awareness
Holistic perspectives - everything is interconnected and humankind is part of the ecological system rather than apart from it
New Age movement has championed the cause of environmentalism - a number of new age religions are creation-centred spiritualities which adopt animistic and ancient nature religions in response to rising environmental consciousness
Growth of ‘nature religions’ since WWII incl. Neo-paganism, Wicca, druidism and pantheism
Many people are attracted to new age religions because they feel that closeness to the environment is a healing thing e.g. nature retreats and prayers invoking a power from within creation
Extension reading
Disenchantment with ‘traditional’ religious practice and guidance
The patriarchal nature of many of the world’s religions along with the mindset of in truth, contributed towards undermining public credibility of traditional religions
Relativism is the idea that no religion or belief system is better than any other, and has become a very popular belief. This directly contradicts religions such as Islam and Christianity.
People are less inclined to accept membership of a religious tradition simply because they were born into it, though, still looking for a spiritual aspect to their life, may look for alternatives in new religious expressions. The sexual abuse scandal was a critical component of many people’s disenchantment with traditional Christianity, especially Catholicism.
New age religions are popular because there is still a longing for a spiritual dimension to life but most importantly, they are not seen as having the structures that reinforce the problems perceived in traditional religions
Non-Religious Worldviews
outline the essential features of Atheism and Agnosticism
Atheism - [a = no/not/without, theos = god + ism]
disbelief or lack of belief in the existence of God or gods
Purport to have evidence proving there is no god; Four main atheistic arguments:
The existence of evil - an all-good God cannot have created evil
Purposelessness of life - as there is no clearly defined purpose, then logically there must be no God
Random universe - universe created randomly by purely naturalistic causes such as evolution
First Law of Thermodynamics - energy can neither be created nor destroyed
Tenets forming a common bore of beliefs (among a diversity of thought)
God does not exist except in the minds of people
Universe is eternal and came out of nothing - it was not caused by anything or anyone
Evil exists in the world but has no supernatural cause
Human beings exist of matter only - there is no such thing as an immortal soul
Agnosticism - [a = not, gnostic = knowing + ism]
It is impossible to know whether or not god/s exist; they have no evidence proving this
Two branches - one says god’s nature and existence are not known, the other says they are unknowable
Does not categorically deny the existence of god - maintains that our minds are inadequate to comprehend such an enormous concept
God is not required for human beings to be moral
outline the positions of:
Rational Humanism
Human reason provides the answers to the questions of life. Rational humanists emphasise the importance of rational human thought and reasoning in all aspects of life, including belief and behaviour. Elevates human reason as the highest form of authority in existence
Philosophy or worldview that focuses on values, achievements and interests of human beings
Egalitarianism - presumption of and belief in the equality of all humanity gave rise to modern democracy Prominent rational humanists: Isaac Asimov, author / Kristen Bell, actress
Council of Rational Humanist Societies, Australia
Scientific Humanism
The idea that reality can be discovered through scientific research and experimentation.
`Scientific humanists believe that reality is what can be touched, measured or numbered.
Emphasis on the scientific method as opposed to philosophy or theology
Science can’t answer all the questions but has the tools to address many of the world’s problems. Prominent scientific humanists: Bill Nye, Carl Sagan
discuss how Agnosticism, Atheism and Humanism determine the aspirations and behaviour of individuals
Overarching organisations:
International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU) - umbrella body of the world humanist movement. The Council of Australian Humanist Societies (CAHS) is a member of the IHEU.
Atheist Alliance International (AAI). Atheist Foundation of Australia (AFA) - member of AAI.
Agnostics, atheists and humanists all believe that all human aspirations, like living a meaningful and purposeful life, can be achieved through the use of human reason. Religion is not necessary
Self-determination = being wholly responsible for the life that a person lives - the process of making one’s own choices
The social sciences (e.g. history, anthropology, sociology) can offer appropriate strategies for achieving human aspirations and for acting ethically.
It is important for humans to act ethically because they belong to a species that survives best when the group lives harmoniously, morally and in the spirit of reciprocity.
Self-determination, human freedom and ethical behaviour are beneficial to the human individual and to society
Richard Dawkins, famous atheist and evolutionary biologist, wrote in his book “The Selfish Gene” that people act altruistically in order to perpetuate their genes, in effect, acting with a sub-conscious biological purpose that is a-moral.
compare the response of ONE religious and ONE non-religious belief system to:
The concept of the transcendent
Atheists believe that there is no transcendent being or plane of existence
We can see this in the belief that after death one ceases to exist and there is no spiritual life or rebirth
[Sam Harris, neuroscientist and atheist says that transcendental experiences are real mental states, but there is nothing that exists that is transcendent as such]
Christians believe that there is a spiritual existence (God, heaven, hell, angels, spiritual souls) and that God transcends human experience, but has become part of his creation in the person of Jesus Christ
We can see this in the belief of Jesus being the source of salvation from sin and being brought to God in Heaven [Romans 5:9 - “we shall be saved”]
The human person
Atheists believe human beings exist in this life only, and made only of matter - no soul
We can see this in the belief that personal and social fulfilment and satisfaction is for this life only.
[Herb Silverman from Ten Things I wish everyone knew about atheism: “We may not see any cosmic purpose of life, but we do find our own joyful purposes in life.”]
Christians believe humanity is the high point of creation, having been made in the image and likeness of God - humans have an immortal, spiritual, rational soul and a physical body
We can see this in the actions of Mother Teresa on the streets of Calcutta: [“in the slums we see Christ and touch him in the broken bodies, in the abandoned children”] [Genesis 1: 27 “in the image of God he created them”]
Social responsibility
Enlightened self-interest - Atheists often believe social responsibility is a part of caring for other people and this world because they see inherent value in improving quality of life, but it is decided by the individual.
We can see this in the actions of atheist social justice groups such as the Society of Edmonton Atheists who provide financial resources to asylum seekers in Canada [Sam Harris (image above): “Our own happiness requires that we extend the circle of our self-interest to others ”]
Christians believe they are called to be God’s influence in the world
Schools (The Association of Christian Schools International (ACSI)
Hospitals (Mercy Sisters’ Mater Hospitals)
Welfare agencies (Baptist World Aid Australia’s Ethical Fashion campaign)
Buddhism
HSC Section II - Question 23 = 3 x short answer [e.g. 2, 5, 8]
Compulsory SST Glossary
Dalai Lama
Environmental Ethics
Wesak
Vajrayana
Bodhisattva
Lama
Tulku
Reincarnation
Monastic
Tibet
FURHHDL
Situational ethics
Detachment
Ahimsa
Dhammika Sutta
Precept
Ordination
Prajna
Sila
Samadhi
Karma
Samsara
Parinirvana
Dharma
Dhammapada
Sangha
Three Jewels
4NTs
Anicca
Moha
prajna
Lobha
nekkamma
Dosa
Metta
Significant Person - XIV Dalai Lama
What is a Dalai Lama?
The Dalai Lama is the leader of Vajrayana Buddhism, the variant or denomination of Buddhism from Tibet in China. Tibetan Buddhists believe that he is a reincarnation of the Bodhisattva of Compassion, Avalokiteśvara. For most of their history, the Dalai Lamas were the religious and political leaders of the Tibetan people.
When a Dalai Lama dies, the high lamas (teachers) look for signs such as visions while meditating, observing the direction of smoke during cremation, or birds flocking to where the new Dalai Lama was born, and once he is found, the young boy is given a few items, one of which belonged to the previous Dalai Lama. If the boy chooses correctly, he is proclaimed tulku (successor) and his training begins.
He was recognised as the Dalai Lama at the age of 2 and began his monastic education at the age of 6. In 1954, (4 years after China invaded Tibet) he was proclaimed the 14th Dalai Lama.
October 1950 - China invaded and conquered Tibet, dethroning the Dalai Lama. He went to Beijing and met with Mao Zedong and other Chinese leaders between 1950 and 1959 to peacefully negotiate, but was eventually forced into exile in Northern India after a popular uprising in 1959.
His actions in his early leadership helped ensure the preservation of Tibetan Buddhism. If he had not fled to India, he would have been assassinated, making it easier for the Communist Chinese government to take control of the religion.
Explain the Contribution
He is an unceasing advocate for nonviolence
The Dalai Lama has contributed to Buddhism by being a model of unceasing compassion and nonviolence
In 1989 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his non-violent struggle for the liberation of Tibet. At his acceptance speech, he said "I speak not with a feeling of anger or hatred towards those who are responsible for the immense suffering of our people and the destruction of our land, homes, and culture. They too are human beings who struggle to find happiness and deserve our compassion." His 5 point peace plan summarises his goals for peace:
“Transformation of the whole of Tibet into a zone of peace;
Abandonment of China's population transfer policy which threatens the very existence of the Tibetans as a people;
Respect for the Tibetan people's fundamental human rights and democratic freedoms;
Restoration and protection of Tibet's natural environment and the abandonment of China's use of Tibet for the production of nuclear weapons and dumping of nuclear waste;
Commencement of earnest negotiations on the future status of Tibet and of relations between the Tibetan and Chinese peoples.”
Foundation for Universal Responsibility of His Holiness the Dalai Lama “Encourages and cultivates Ahimsa (nonviolence) as a guiding principle for interaction among human beings and with the environment.”
Annual Interfaith Pilgrimage organised by FURHHDL across southern India explored sacred sites and practices of various traditions, including Christianity, Islam, Zoroastrianism, Sikhism and many others
Meant to foster peace and understanding between people of different religions
He has worked to preserve Tibetan culture
The Gaden Phodrang Foundation of the Dalai Lama was founded in 2015 to maintain and support the tradition and institution of the Dalai Lama with regard to the religious and spiritual duties of the Dalai Lama. They also support the activities of individuals or institutions working for the welfare of the Tibetan people, the advancement of the culture and heritage of the ancient civilization of Tibet, and the promotion of the deep rooted values associated with it.
The purpose of its scholarship program is to further the human capital development of Tibetan people by encouraging the pursuit of excellence among Tibetan students in a graduate field of study that has relevance and potential to contribute to the welfare of humanity and the Tibetan people in particular.
Scholarships from the foundation are given to Tibetan students to study at reputable universities overseas, so that they can become qualified and competent leaders.
Stats: >100 scholarships awarded, 240 grants awarded, 140 students graduated
“The Foundation regards the cultivation of ahimsa and nonviolence as a powerful means toward both individual growth and broader social change.
Analyse the Impact
He has provided answers to modern issues with Buddhist teachings
He has had a direct impact on the design and formulation of Buddhist thought on current issues of contentious debate amongst all world religions such as the environment, abortion, homosexuality and sexual behaviour.
Generally, situational ethics prevails when it comes to the Dalai Lama - no concrete, unmoving moral standards
Sexuality - homosexuality should be avoided, but if two non-believers are consenting, he sees no problem. Article. Video interview with DL.
Abortion - is seen as an act of killing, but each situation should be approved or disapproved according to circumstances
“Of course, abortion, from a Buddhist viewpoint, is an act of killing and is negative, generally speaking ... I think abortion should be approved or disapproved according to each circumstance.”
-- Dalai Lama, New York Times, 28/11/1993
Env. Ethics - all Buddhists should factor ecology into the way they live their lives
Dalai Lama tweeted in 2010: “A concerted international effort is needed to think about measures to preserve our common and delicate ecology”
What’s the most recent thing he’s tweeted regarding env. ethics?
He has popularised Buddhism in the West
Since 1967, been to 63 countries, more than 300 visits
19.2 million followers on Twitter; Facebook - 14 million likes, recent posts consistently in excess of 2000 shares, some up to 8500
Authored/co-authored at least 80 books, most published in English.
He teaches the buddhist principal belief of detachment in his “Book of Wisdom” (1998): “When our attitude towards our material possessions and wealth is not proper, it can lead to an extreme attachment towards such things as our property, houses and belongings. ... In a way, one is then really poor”.
Richard Gere, actor, converted to Buddhism over a number of years in his life, and after meeting the Dalai Lama in 1978, became a Tibetan Buddhist and considers him to be his guru. He meets with him regularly in Dharamsala, seeking spiritual direction.
In 2017, Gere said that he “recently had an episode where someone said they could not finance a film with me because it would upset the Chinese." This shows he continues to practise his Buddhist faith, despite discrimination
Environmental Ethics
Describe and explain Buddhist teachings on Environmental Ethics
The following star points help you to frame your responses. Talk about some or all of these in every ethics response:
Ethics guide adherents’ decision-making
Ethics helps evaluate adherents’ morality
Ethics assists in adherents acting on their decisions
Ethics aids the bringing about of social transformation
Ethics allows social cohesion
Ahimsa (Refrain from harming sentient beings)
Describe (list characteristics):
Buddhist adherents should abstain from the harm of living things including animals and their environment; this encourages a harmonious relationship with the environment and thus, demonstrates compassion.
Vegetarianism puts ahimsa into practice. It ensures the conservation of life by avoiding the slaughter of animals and thus, a demonstration of compassion and following of the precept and a demonstration of the correct thought
Sacred Text - find more!
“He should not kill a living being, nor cause it to be killed, nor should he incite another to kill. Do not injure any being, either strong or weak, in the world.”
-- Dhammika Sutta
Issue / problem
Animal cruelty is contrary to the teaching of ahimsa, as it is an expression of the three poisons of greed, hatred and ignorance. Animals share in humanity’s captivity in the cycle of samsara, and thus deserve to be treated with kindness, as they are sentient beings.
Example/Evidence (how is this teaching expressed in the ethical conduct of adherents?)
Tree of Compassion is an Australian Buddhist organisation working to convince the Federal Government to ban live exports of cattle, sheep, etc. through asking adherents to write to MPs. This is a continuous initiative to curb animal cruelty and promote ahimsa.
Refrain from taking what is not given - living in harmony with the environment
Describe (list characteristics)
Adherents are called to live in harmony with the earth, ensuring that they do not take from it “what is not given”, or more than they actually need.
Living in harmony with the environment is an expression of the wisdom (prajna) of the Four Noble Truths, in that one should curb their desire in order to minimise their suffering.
How else can you link the idea of living in harmony with the environment with the principal beliefs of Buddhism?
Sacred Text - find more!
The Buddha said: “He who in this world takes nothing that is not given to him, be it long or short, small or big, good or bad -- him do I call a holy man.”
-- Dhammapada 409
Issue
Deforestation is an issue where governments and large companies are “taking what is not given” by cutting more trees down than is sustainable for local natural environments. Buddhists view these entities as breaking the second precept.
Example/Evidence (how is this teaching expressed in the ethical conduct of adherents?)
Cambodian & Thai monks are working to prevent deforestation, despite risking opposing the government, by ordaining trees. The Abbot of the monastery is called Abbot Phrakru Pitak Nanthakthun (just remember his surname)
Watch this very engaging video
Significant Practice - Wesak
Describe Wesak
Wesak (or Vesak) is the celebration of Buddha’s birthday - it incorporates his birth, enlightenment and final passing into nirvana (death - parinirvana)
Formalised at the first Conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in Sri Lanka in 1950 however it is a centuries-old tradition
Held on the day of the full moon in the month of Visakha (April-May) in South-East Asian countries
In many countries planting is about to begin with anticipation for the coming rains
connection between the Buddha and fertility
Purely religious festival and not a festive occasion
During Wesak, adherents do: Spongebob catapulted beer over fancy women very carefully.
Sri Lanka
The royal family is present - connecting religion with the state
Coconut oil lamps and lights are paraded
Buddha is seen as the remover of the darkness of ignorance
In Sri Lanka, all slaughterhouses and liquor stores are closed for two days so as to avoid breaking the first and fifth precepts (to refrain from killing sentient beings and to refrain from taking intoxicating substances)
National holiday
South Korea
Lotus lanterns cover the entire temple throughout the month and are often flooded down the street (Lotus Lantern Festival is held in Seoul)
purity and is also a sacred flower of Buddhism
India
Many do not eat meat
The replica of the Bodhi Vrksa (the tree where Buddha attained enlightenment) is decorated with coloured flags, the roots are sprinkled with milk and scented water
Buddhists reaffirm their faith in the Five Precepts
Burma (Myanmar)
fish are released into fresh water- act of compassion
focuses more on Buddha’s enlightenment
Malaysia
Theravada buddhists encourage blood donation as a high form of giving - blood donations are carried out in the temple grounds
Demonstrate how Wesak demonstrates the beliefs of Buddhism
Spongebob Catapulted Beer Over Fancy Women Very Carefully
Ritual Action
Teaching
How They’re Linked
Study Dharma with reading and listening to sermons
Dhammapada 194 “blessed is the enunciation of the sacred Teaching”
Four Noble Truths
Eightfold Path - Prajna
Three Jewels - Dharma
The core of the Dharma is the 4NTs
Sermons help form wisdom and right view
Buddhist renew devotion to the teachings of the Buddha
Ethical guidance
Charity donations (money, food)
Dh. 177 “the wise man rejoices in giving”
Eightfold Path - Prajna & Sila
Three Jewels - Sangha
Right intention and conduct
Buddhist assist the Sangha in their material needs
Bathing the Buddha - Mahayana only - water poured over shoulders of Buddha statuette
Eightfold Path - Samadhi
Three Jewels - Buddha
Done in the spirit of meditation
A sign of respect for the Buddha
Offerings of candles, flowers, incense to Buddha at stupa/pagoda
“He who gives food gives four things … long life, beauty, happiness & strength” (Tripitaka)
Three Marks of Existence - Anicca
Four Noble Truths - Nirodha
These things die quickly, reminding of impermanence
The way out of suffering is detachment from material things
Freeing caged animals (e.g. fish, birds)
Noble Eightfold Path - Prajna, Sila
Metta - loving-kindness towards sentient beings
Wearing white
purity must be attained “before attainment to nirvana” (Rathavinita Sutta)
Eightfold Path -
Prajna - purity of insight
Sila - moral purity
Samadhi - purity of mind
Symbol of purity - the wisdom of the buddha brings adherents to understand the true nature of purity
Vegetarian diet
Noble Eightfold Path - Prajna, Sila
Metta - loving-kindness towards sentient beings
Candlelit procession around stupa
Eightfold Path - Samadhi
Metta - benevolence or loving-kindness is symbolically radiated to the entire world
Analyse the significance of Wesak for individuals and the community
Individuals:
Buddhist individuals are expected to reaffirm their faith in the Dharma and the Buddha
Meditate - critical for enlightenment; radiate Loving-Kindness
It is a chance for individuals to remember the story of the Buddha and reflect on what it means to move towards Enlightenment themselves - personal growth
Accumulate positive karmic merit - Wesak day gives exponential merit.
Merit Release, the practice of releasing caged animals, has a few negative effects. Read about it here.
Individuals partake in the ritual actions to counteract/reduce/expunge the three poisons and increase the three perfections:
Moha - ignorance → prajna - wisdom
Lobha - greed → nekkhamma - detachment
Dosa - hatred → metta - loving-kindness
Community
Strengthening the community’s values and identity
Communal reflection upon the Buddha’s life and teachings give opportunities for reaffirmation of commitment, bringing social cohesion
By focusing on the ‘present moment’ (Dhammapada 348), Buddhists can identify issues within society and allow the Wesak festival to mend those problems
Charitable donations positively live out the 2nd precept and reinforce shared commitment to ethical behaviour
Supporting social causes
Engaging in acts of compassion and generosity towards others (cultivating metta) exact positive impacts upon society
It is important to have a happy community to “live in safety” (Metta Sutta), as the disadvantaged must have their needs met by the fortunate
Offering of alms to monks promotes a sense of mutual support and shows the importance of living within a monastic community
Fostering Intergenerational and intercultural understanding
Sharing experiences and perspectives, “living in joy, not hating those who hate us” (Dhammapada 197) cultivates understanding of others
Bathing the Buddha allows Buddhists to connect with the Buddha’s life and teachings, deepen their understanding of those teachings, and show respect for elders and ancestors
Christianity
HSC Section II - Question 24 = 3 x short answer [e.g. 2, 5, 8] OR
Compulsory SST Glossary
Paul of Tarsus
Environmental Ethics
Saturday/Sunday Worship
Damascus
Missionary
Philosophy
Theology
Apostle
Gentiles
Commission
Epistle
Last Supper
Communion
Examination of Conscience
Justification
Stewardship
Dominion
Subdue
Biodiversity
Love of the Poor
Divest
GHFS
Breaking of the Bread
Confession
Mass
Divine Liturgy of St John Chrysostom
Trisagion Hymn
Goria
Lectionary
Sermon
Eucharist
Transubstantiation
Iconostasis
Ite missa est
Antidoron
Prosphoron
Repentance
Mystical Body of Christ
Nicene Creed
Significant Person - Paul of Tarsus
Who is he?
Saul of Tarsus was originally a tentmaker and a devout jew, who persecuted the first Christians in the months after Jesus’ resurrection and ascension.
On his way to the city of Damascus to bring Christians back to Jerusalem for trial, he was struck off his horse by God, make blind, and heard the voice of Jesus say “Saul, why do you persecute me?” (Acts 9)
He made his way to Damascus, and met a christian man there who healed him. He eventually converted, changed his name to Paul, and became one of the greatest christian evangelists (spreaders of the Gospel) in all history.
The Acts of the Apostles, the book after the four Gospels in the New Testament, tells much about the evangelical activities of Paul.
Explain the Contribution - the effect they had at the time
Missionary Journeys & Writings
Paul was the right person at the right place at the right time to be a great evangelist. He was a learned jew who grew up in gentile lands, and a Roman citizen - this gave him great knowledge of jewish and gentile philosophy and theology, and complete freedom of movement. He even was able to meet with the Roman emperor, a right he had as a citizen.
He is known as the Apostle to the Gentiles, as he was the man who (almost) single handedly brought Christianity to the Mediterranean region, specifically Asia minor (modern-day Turkey), Greece and the Italian peninsula.
Sacred Text - While they were worshipping the Lord and fasting, the Holy Spirit said, “Set apart for me Barnabas and Saul for the work to which I have called them.” Then after fasting and praying they laid their hands on them and sent them off. (Acts 13: 2-3)
The Holy Spirit is believed by Christians to have commissioned (sent with authority) Paul for the work of evangelisation.
Paul is said to have written 13 epistles (letters) in the New Testament (some of these are disputed, especially 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus). Paul would go to a place, preach the Gospel, start a church community, designate leaders, and leave for another place to do the same thing. He would often write back to communities he helped found. These letters strengthened and solidified communities of early christians, allowing them to thrive.
The Christians in Corinth suffered from too much division Paul wrote a letter of instruction on harmony and unity (1 Corinthians 1:10-17)
The Christians in Thessalonica were anxious and confused in his absence; they received a letter of consolation and comfort (1 Thessalonians 2:17-5:28)
The Galatian community were ready to reject Paul entirely and become more Jewish in belief and practice; Paul scolds and berates them, and reasserts his authority (Galatians 2:1-14, 2:1-5:26)
The Council of Jerusalem
What was the Council of Jerusalem?:
The Council of Jerusalem, held around 50 AD, was a pivotal meeting in the early Christian Church. It addressed the conditions under which Gentile (non-Jewish) converts would be accepted into the Christian community. This gathering is essential because it helped define how Christianity would evolve and spread.
Paul's Advocacy for Gentile Christians:
A central issue at the Council was whether Gentiles had to follow Jewish customs, notably circumcision, to be Christians. Paul, having witnessed the faith of Gentile converts during his missions, argued passionately against imposing these customs. In his letter to the Galatians, Paul emphasised, "In Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision counts for anything, but only faith working through love" (Galatians 5:6).
Uniting the Early Christian Movement:
Paul's perspective, bolstered by his ally Barnabas, greatly influenced the Council's outcome. The apostles and the elders agreed that Gentile Christians did not need to adhere strictly to the Mosaic Law. This consensus is reflected in a letter from the Council, stating, "It seemed good to the Holy Spirit and to us not to burden you with anything beyond the following requirements" (Acts 15:28), which were significantly less stringent than the entire Jewish Law.
Laying Foundations for Inclusive Christian Outreach:
Paul's arguments and the Council's decisions set Christianity on a path to global inclusivity. In Romans, Paul writes, "For there is no distinction between Jew and Greek; for the same Lord is Lord of all" (Romans 10:12). This emphasis on universal accessibility allowed Christianity to resonate with diverse populations, setting the groundwork for its worldwide spread.
In essence, the Council of Jerusalem, with Paul's influential stance, marked a defining moment in Christian history, ensuring the faith was adaptable and welcoming to a broad audience.
Clarification on the Nature of Christian Worship
Sacred Text: 1 Corinthians 11 has a large section devoted to worshipping God. In verses 17 - 22, Paul emphasises keeping worship sacred and avoiding abuses (in direct contradiction to how the Christians in Jerusalem were worshipping in the beginning; c.f. Acts 2:42-47). He reprimands the Corinthians for being disunified, not sharing and becoming drunk on wine.
Paul clarifies what worship is about by linking the Last Supper with the death and resurrection of Jesus. He recounts the Institution narrative (“On the night before he died, he took bread, broke it, etc.”), and then says in verse 26: “For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes.” It is not a time for drunkenness.
By ensuring the integrity of Christian worship, Paul enabled Christians at the time to know what they were doing during worship, and why - to truly understand its significance.
Analyse the Impact - continuing effect on adherents
Worthy Reception of Holy Communion
Paul continues in 1 Corinthians 11 to explain how to receive Communion in a worthy manner: “Whoever, therefore, eats the bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner will be answerable for the body and blood of the Lord.” (verse 27) and “For all who eat and drink without discerning the body, eat and drink judgement against themselves.” (verse 29)
How does one receive communion in a worthy manner? Paul says: “Examine yourselves, and only then eat of the bread and drink of the cup.” (verse 28). Christians are to examine their own conscience and acknowledge their sinfulness in order to receive communion well
Anglicans examine themselves and confess their sins at the start of the Lord’s Supper, after The Word and the Prayers. Quote: “But those who would eat the bread and drink the cup of the Lord must examine themselves, and amend their lives.” AND “With shame we confess the sins we have committed against you, in thought, word and deed.“
Catholics confess their sins at the start of Mass in the Confiteor: “I confess to almighty God, and to you my brothers and sisters, that I have greatly sinned...” Catholics also teach that the Sacrament of Reconciliation must be received if in mortal sin - not in Anglican/Protestant.
Obligation to do Charity
“Do what I told the Galatian churches to do. On the first day of every week, each one of you should set aside a sum of money in keeping with your income … Then, when I arrive, I will give letters of introduction to the men you approve and send them with your gift to Jerusalem.” (1 Corinthians 16: 1-4)
“First day of the week” implies that this is done during Sunday worship. Paul makes giving charitably almost as important as worshipping God. He sends the money collected to Jerusalem, where Christians are doing it tough due to persecution.
Hillsong Australia continues this idea of Paul in their Hillsong Foundation. They “believe in the biblical principle of tithing. In Malachi 3:10 the bible talks about bringing the first 10% of [their] income into the storehouse (church).”
It “funds facilities for our growing congregation and College as well as providing vital support to the initiatives of Hillsong CityCare, the Hillsong Africa Foundation and to a number of partnering charities in Australia and in developing nations.”
Environmental Ethics
Describe and explain Christian teachings on Environmental Ethics
The following star points help you to frame your responses. Talk about some or all of these in every ethics response:
Ethics guide adherents’ decision-making
Ethics helps evaluate adherents’ morality
Ethics assists in adherents acting on their decisions
Ethics aids the bringing about of social transformation
Ethics allows social cohesion
Stewardship
Describe (list characteristics)
After creating humanity, God commands them to multiply, to subdue the earth, and have dominion over the earth’s creatures.
This does not mean that people can use and abuse, but must take care of the earth. Adherents are meant to be stewards, trustees with authority and responsibility to preserve God’s creation, not pretend to own the earth to do with it what they want.
Sacred Text
God blessed them, and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.” (also Psalm 8 - read it!)
-- Genesis 1:28
Issue
Animal cruelty - animals deserve to be treated with love and respect as members of God’s creation. Christians have a responsibility to look after domesticated animals that they own, and preserve the habitats of wild animals to ensure the continuation of their species.
Example/Evidence (how is this teaching expressed in the ethical conduct of adherents?)
Anglican Society for the Welfare of Animals: “We believe that God has given us a responsibility towards sentient beings with whom we share God’s world. The Bible teaches us that God has given us ‘dominion’ not ‘domination’ over animals. This means ‘loving care’ not ‘ruthless exploitation’”
Agapic Love for the Poor
Describe (list characteristics)
While secular environmentalism emphasises conservation of the environment for the environment’s sake, Christian environmental ethics recognises the special dignity of humanity, and seeks to preserve God’s creation for the sake of the human race.
Catholic Social Teaching - Preferential Option for the Poor - Christians should utilise environmental resources while giving preference to the needs of the poor and vulnerable
When applied to the environment, the Agapic love of the poor is a teaching which compels Christians to enable the poor to not just be able to provide for themselves and their families, but to flourish.
Sacred Text
“I was thirsty, and you gave me something to drink … Truly, I say to you, as you did it to one of the least of these my brothers, you did it to me.” -- Matthew 25: 35, 40
Issue
Water safety and sanitation is a significant problem for much of the developing world. Without access to clean potable water, not only is the environment at danger of further degradation from poor human stewardship, those who live in those areas are at serious risk of disease.
The Catholic Church recognizes water as a fundamental human right. In 2011, the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace issued a document titled "Water, an Essential Element for Life," which emphasises the importance of water as a human right and a common good. The document states that "access to safe drinkable water is a basic and universal human right, since it is essential to human survival and, as such, is a condition for the exercise of other human rights."
Furthermore, Pope Francis has frequently spoken about the importance of water as a human right, calling for greater access to clean water and sanitation facilities, especially for those living in poverty. In his 2015 encyclical "Laudato Si'," the pope emphasised the importance of caring for our common home, including the responsible stewardship of water resources, and called for a renewed commitment to protecting the environment and ensuring access to water for all people.
Example/Evidence (how is this teaching expressed in the ethical conduct of adherents?)
Tearfund Australia is an Australian non-denominational organisation with many environmental initiatives. They offer opportunities for individuals to donate sums of money for practical water solutions for the world’s poor: $35 for a hand washing station in rural Pakistan, $70 for a toilet in Laos, and $1900 for a well in Zambia.
Integral Ecology
Describe (list the characteristic of the teaching)
Integral Ecology recognises that all aspects of life are interconnected because they are created and sustained by God. This includes the natural environment, human society, culture, and economic activity.
This teaching rejects a fragmented approach to ethical decision-making, where environmental, social, and economic issues are treated separately. Instead, it emphasises that human actions must be evaluated in light of their total impact across all areas of life.
Christians are therefore called to make moral decisions that respect the order and harmony of creation, recognising that misuse in one area (e.g. consumption or production) can create disorder in others (e.g. environmental damage and social consequences).
Sacred Text
“The earth is the Lord’s and everything in it, the world, and all who live in it.”
— Psalm 24
“Everything is connected.” — Laudato Si'
Issue
Electronic waste (e-waste) is a significant form of pollution. Discarded devices such as phones, computers, and televisions are often exported to developing countries, where they are dismantled using unsafe methods. Toxic substances such as lead and mercury contaminate the soil, air, and water, damaging ecosystems.
Integral Ecology highlights that this issue cannot be understood purely as an environmental problem. It is also linked to patterns of consumption, economic systems that prioritise rapid production and disposal, and the global movement of waste. This demonstrates how environmental degradation, economic decisions, and human activity are deeply interconnected.
Example/Evidence (how is this teaching expressed in the ethical conduct of adherents?)
Caritas Australia supports initiatives that promote sustainable resource use and responsible waste management in vulnerable communities.
As part of their own internal Laudato si Action Plan, they operate e-waste and battery recycling systems in its Sydney office
This reflects Integral Ecology by showing that ethical action requires attention to the full system of relationships, rather than addressing environmental issues in isolation.
Significant Practice - Saturday/Sunday Worship
Describe Saturday/Sunday Worship
Saturday/Sunday Worship is a ritualised commemoration of both the Last Supper and the Death and Resurrection of Jesus. “For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes.” (1 Corinthians 11:26)
Worship was moved from Saturday (sabbath in the Jewish tradition) to Sunday, as it was the day of the resurrection (Acts 20:7)
During SSW, Christians Gather, where they exchange more or less ritualised greetings and begin praying, they Hear the word of God and are instructed, they are Fed by Holy Communion, and are Sent, commissioned (entrusted; sent with a mission) to spread the Gospel in the world.
Understanding of the meaning & significance of SSW differs between denominations:
Catholic & Orthodox Churches view the Mass or the Divine Liturgy of St John Chrysostom as the representation of Christ’s sacrifice of the cross on Calvary - that sacrifice is made present, as a participation in the life of Christ, and as a real participation in the eternal worship of God in heaven. The bread and wine are believed to be literally changed into the flesh and blood of Christ. Catholics call this transubstantiation.
Uniting Churches, Baptist Churches, and other Protestants view the “Lord’s Supper” or the “Breaking of the Bread” as a symbolic commemoration of the life, death, and resurrection of Christ. Grape juice is sometimes used instead of wine. Sydney Anglican Book of Common Prayer
Describe how Saturday/Sunday Worship demonstrates the beliefs of Christianity
Ritual Action
Teaching
How They’re Linked
They gather...
Confession of Sins - All
(General statement of confession, not public naming of personal sins)
Catholic - Confiteor - beat breast x3 saying: “through my most grievous fault” - gesture expresses sorrow for sins
Anglican - “Most merciful God, we humbly admit that we need your help. We confess that we have wandered from your way: we have done wrong, and we have failed to do what is right. You alone can save us.”
Salvation
Repentance is necessary for forgiveness from God - “unless you repent, you will all perish” (Luke 13:3)
Lived life: Go to Confession (Catholic & Orthodox); avoid near occasions of sin
Hymns of Praise
Orthodox - Trisagion Hymn “Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, have mercy on us.”
Catholic - Gloria “Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace to people of good will.”
Nature of God & Trinity
Christians believe God deserves to be praised and adored (Psalm 115)
...they hear...
Scripture Readings - Lectionary
Organised set scripture readings on specific days of the liturgical year (Catholics & Protestants - 3 year cycle; Orthodox - 1 year cycle)
Old Testament, Psalm, New Testament, Gospel
St Paul tells his disciple Timothy to “devote yourself to the public reading of Scripture, to exhortation, to teaching.” (1 Timothy 4:13)
Revelation
Reading of sacred texts has been part of worship since Judaism
Sermons (a priest/minister gets up and talks about either the readings or how to live a good Christian life) in Protestant services tend to be very long, especially when not a communion service
Scripture forms the basis of Christian belief, and are taught authoritatively
Creed A statement of belief is made in the form of the Nicene or Apostles Creed. “I believe in God, the Father almighty…”
Trinity
The creed reaffirms their belief in the Trinity, incarnation and death and resurrection of Christ as fundamental Christian beliefs
...they are fed...
EUCHARIST - Literal Jesus - Catholic & Orthodox
Catholics term this transubstantiation, and describe it as the Real Presence. Both believe in the physical yet invisible transformation of bread and wine into body, blood, soul & divinity of Jesus. Liturgy considered a re-presentation of Christ’s sacrifice on the cross to God, in an unbloody manner.
Catholic prayers ask God to bless bread and wine “so that it may become … the Body and Blood of your most beloved Son, our Lord Jesus Christ.”
Orthodox use an iconostasis to demonstrate sacredness of liturgical action. Prayers ask Holy Spirit to “make [the] bread the precious Body of Your Christ”, and the same with the wine. “...changing them by Your Holy Spirit.”
Death & Resurrec-
tion of Jesus
Jesus institutes the ritual of the Lord’s Supper:
“This is my body … Do this in memory of me.” (Luke 22:19)
Paul links Last Supper to the death and resurrection of Jesus: “As often as you eat this bread & drink this cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until he comes.” (1 Cor 11:26)
LORD’S SUPPER - Symbolic Jesus - Protestantism
Protestants differ in their theology regarding Communion. Most believe it is a symbolic remembrance of Jesus’ sacrifice on the cross.
Sydney Anglican: “Come let us eat and drink in remembrance that Christ died for us, and feed on him in our hearts by faith with thanksgiving.”
...and they are sent.
Dismissal - Ite missa est
Catholic adherents are sent out into the world to be witnesses to the gospel - “Go in peace, glorifying the Lord by your life.”
Salvation
1 Cor 10: “Do not seek your own advantage, but that of the other … whatever you do, do everything for the glory of God.
Prayers to the Saints
Orthodox concluding prayers (apolytikion) summarise the theme of the liturgy (season, saint), exhorting the congregation to learn from the example of the saints and apply to their daily lives.
Adherents assisted in their salvation through the prayers of the saints
Analyse the significance of Saturday/Sunday Worship for individuals and the community
Individuals are renewed in their faith by:
Repentance is reiterated and the good life is re-committed to
The mind and intellect is instructed, and the soul is stirred to live according to Jesus’ teachings
Spiritual nourishment is given through Holy Communion
The community comes together and worships God, which strengthens the ties between individual adherents in their common faith
“Wherever two or more gather in my name, there I am in their midst” (Matthew 18:20)
It is a physical manifestation of the Mystical Body of Christ: “For just as the body is one and has many members (parts), and all the members of the body, though many, are one body, so it is with Christ. For in the one Spirit we were all baptized into one body—Jews or Greeks, slaves or free—and we were all made to drink of one Spirit.” (1 Corinthians 12)
Christians believe that an effect of receiving communion is that is makes all members of the MBC more united
The community can pray for each other and the whole world in the Prayers of the Faithful
Creedal Statements (Nicene Creed) reinforce the community’s common understanding of the faith
Research: How has Christianity adapted SSW to COVID-19?
Islam
HSC Section III - Question 31 = 1 x 20-mark extended response
Compulsory SST Glossary
A’isha bint Abu Bakr
Environmental Ethics
Hajj
Hafiza
Caliph
Fiqh
Hadith
Tayammum
Salat
Sunni
Shi’a
Hijab
Tawhid
Mizan
Khalifah
Akrah
Wasatiyya
Asceticism
Zakat
Ihram
Tawaf
Kaaba
Akhira
Malā’ikah
Kutubullah
Sa’y
Wuquf
Ramy al-Jamarat
Day of Nahr
Significant Person - A’isha bint Abu Bakr
Who is she?
She was the daughter of Abu Bakr (close friend of Muhammad and his first successor [khalif]) and the prophet’s third wife. They married while she was quite young, in order to solidify the political alliance between Muhammad and Abu Bakr.
A’isha became Muhammad’s favourite wife, and after the prophet’s death, she became known as the mother of all believers, especially for Sunni Muslims.
Explain the Contribution
Contribution to Revelation - BP1
A hafiza (feminine form of hafiz) is someone who has memorised the Qur’an. Hafizes were important in the early development of Islam, as they ensured the authenticity of versions of the Qur’an before Uthman (the Third Rightly Guided Caliph) standardised the Qur’an and ordered all others be burned.
Sacred Text: Abu Musa Al-Ashari once said “If we companions of the Messenger of God had any difficulty on a matter, we asked Aisha about it.” - this demonstrates the reliability of A’isha’s hadiths. Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh), or understanding the law of God, is based upon the Qur’an and hadith, and so her contribution was of vital importance.
Tayammum: Because of A’isha, the verses about tayammum (using earth or sand for ritual cleaning in the absence of water) were revealed to Muhammad. While on an expedition with her husband and his army, A’isha realised that she had lost her sister’s necklace. She asked for Muhammad to help. It was not found, and so they laid to rest for the night.
Sacred Text: Abu Bakr, A’isha’s father, was angry that nobody had any water to wash for prayer, let alone drink. At that moment, Muhammad received a revelation from Gabriel: “if you … find no water, then take yourselves to pure earth, passing with it lightly over your face and hands” (4:43). After prayer, and before setting off, the necklace was found as her camel stood up.
This revelation, given due to a indirect action of A’isha, allows muslims to conserve water for human and animal consumption when it is scarce, and muslims can still meet their religious obligation to do salat. This contribution is especially important given the desert climate within which Islam was born.
The Scandal of the Slander: A’isha was left behind after stopping to answer the call to nature. After waiting for someone to come back for her, a soldier named Safwan ibn Muattal found her, recognised her as a wife of the Prophet, put her on his camel, and walked to catch up with the rest of the army.
When they were seen approaching the army, the political enemies of Muhammad took the opportunity to slander A’isha, accusing her of adultery with Safwan ibn Muattal. This greatly distressed her, and after several weeks, Muhammad asked her if she was still chaste.
Sacred Text: A’isha replied that she would never apologise for anything, since she was innocent. Muhammad was then revealed a chapter of the Qur’an: “Why did they not produce four witnesses (in support of the accusation)? Now that they have not produced witnesses, it is indeed they who are the liars in God’s sight.” (24:13) Eighty lashes is also the punishment due to those who do not produce witnesses (24:4).
This revelation, tied to events in A’isha’s life, protects women and anyone accused of slander for anything, and shows Islam to be a religion which values truth over dishonesty.
Analyse the Impact
She emphasised the Importance of Hijab
Sacred Text: While A’isha warned others about hijab (muslim modesty dress-code), she too paid strict attention to it, as commanded in Quran 33:59 - “O Prophet, tell your wives ... to bring down over themselves [part] of their outer garments. That is more suitable that they will be known and not be abused.” She was careful not to enter the crowds circumambulating the Kaaba, and always taught classes behind a curtain for people who were not close relatives.
One of her close relatives had a slave named Salim, who wanted to learn how to perform ablution. She taught him without the curtain, since she considered him part of the family. Some time later, he visited her and said that he had earned his freedom. She prayed, “May God give you blessings”, and she moved behind the curtain, as he was no longer family.
Susan Carland, academic, author and wife of The Project’s Waleed Ali, converted to Islam at 19 years old, and pays attention to hijab. She told SMH that “the currency is very much exposed flesh and 'pay attention to me' - and that's fine if people want to do that, that's their prerogative. But I see a lot of wisdom in the Islamic value of modesty in terms of behaviour and dress.” She also says that she “[doesn’t] find wearing hijab restrictive … The whole point about hijab is it was meant to facilitate mobility in society." Another article by Mamamia
She was an advocate for women
In pre-Islamic Arabia (jahiliyah - the time of ignorance), women had been second-class citizens, the result of many centuries of tradition. A’isha’s sensitivities to women were aimed at providing solutions to these age-old problems.
Sacred Text: One example was when a woman came to her with great sorrow saying that her husband neither divorces her, nor leaves her on her own, nor has marital relations with her - he would toy with her - threaten divorce, leave, but then return, preventing her from being remarried. When A’isha brought this problem to Muhammad, he received a revelation from God: “divorce must be pronounced twice and then (a woman) must be retained in honour or released in kindness” (2:229). This put an end to arbitrary divorce practices.
Hind Makki of the Islamic Society of North America is an American muslim woman who runs a blog and Facebook page called Side Entrance with the aim of exposing mosques which do not provide adequate space for women to pray (since men and women must pray separately within Islam). HuffPost Article. She says she is “airing dirty laundry, because it needs to get washed.” Link to interview. Hind Makki is being an advocate for women, solving solutions to age-old problems.
Environmental Ethics
Describe and explain Muslim teachings on Environmental Ethics
Remember: when discussing ethics, it is good to talk about how they guide adherents in their everyday lives:
Ethics guide adherents’ decision-making
Ethics helps evaluate adherents’ morality
Ethics assists in adherents acting on their decisions
Ethics aids the bringing about of social transformation
Ethics allows social cohesion
Tawhid
Describe (list characteristics)
Tawhid = the oneness of Allah. Putting God first. Belief in the Oneness of God, who is the Owner and Creator of everything in the universe. Muslims view the natural environment as sacred and valuable and recognise that everything praises God. By reflecting on the miracle of Creation, Muslims affirm their belief in God and the Unity of God. Therefore, it’s because the purpose of human life is to worship Allah. By caring for creation, the Muslim is submitting to Allah.
Mizan = balance: recognising God’s Tawhid means recognition that God created the universe in perfect balance and measure, so it should not be altered by human beings. Muslims must live sustainably to maintain the perfect balance created by God.
Sacred Text
“To God belongs all that is in the heavens and on earth” (Qur'an, 4:126)
“And the sky has He raised high, and has devised (for all things) a balance, so that you might never transgress the balance: weigh, therefore (your deeds) with equity, and do not upset the balance” (Qur’an, 55:7-9)
Issue
Animals rights - All living beings – humans, birds, animals, insects etc – are worthy of consideration and respect. Islam has always viewed animals as a special part of God’s creation. Mankind is responsible for whatever it has at its disposal, including animals whose rights must be respected. Part of halal dietary requirements, halal slaughter prohibits slaughtering the animal in a way that makes them suffer.
Hadith - Muhammad said: “Whoever is merciful even to a sparrow, Allah will be merciful to him on the Day of Judgment.” Also: “A good deed done to an animal is like a good deed done to a human being, while an act of cruelty to an animal is as bad as cruelty to a human being.”
Example/Evidence (how is this teaching expressed in the ethical conduct of adherents?)
EcoMENA is a volunteer-driven initiative to create mass environmental awareness and to foster sustainability worldwide, MENA (Middle East & North Africa) in particular. Won Energy Globe Award 2017 and Qatar Sustainability Awards 2018.
EcoMENA strives to make the Middle East a better place by safeguarding the environment through knowledge-sharing, mentorship, guidance and encouragement to people across all walks of life.
Khalifa
Describe (list characteristics)
Khalifah = stewardship: The Qur’an says that God gave human beings the role of steward – caliph – on earth. Caliph translates as steward, deputy, guardian. This role gives the human being responsibility for God’s creation, which includes maintaining and protecting it.
Akrah = accountability: being a steward means having authority over Creation, but also accountability over their treatment of the environment. Human beings are accountable for every action taken and will be rewarded or punished for every action taken. On the Day of Judgement humanity will be questioned about every action, including how we treat the environment and animals.
Sacred Text
“It is He that has made you caliph (viceregent), over the earth” (Qur’an, 6:165)
“So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it, And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it.” (Qur’an 99:7-8)
Issue
Water conservation is an important issue in environmental ethics as water is a vital resource for all life - nothing can survive without it, and humans require fresh, clean water to avoid disease.
Example/Evidence (how is this teaching expressed in the ethical conduct of adherents?)
Tayammum (dry ablutions) are performed before salat prayer by muslims who do not have enough water for drinking.
Green Muslims is an organisation which runs youth outdoor educational programs called “Our Deen (faith) is Green!” tailored to 8-13 year olds. The 2019 program focused on the Chesapeake Bay in the USA, and its importance to the local environment, and “what [they] can do to connect with and protect the earth. “
Wasatiyya
Describe (list characteristics)
Wasatiyya = moderation, which ensures that adherents of islam do not over-consume resources.
In contrast to wanting more and more, the Qur’an guides muslims to moderation, balance, and preservation. On moderation in all things, the Qur’an says “And We have willed you to be a community of the middle path (umatan wasatan)” (2:142)
Dr Basil Mustafa, lecturer in Islamic Studies at Oxford University, has said that “material delight and bodily pleasures are considered natural … on condition that they are lawfully attained, moderately used and compassionately shared.” Natural Resources - Environmental Education.: An Islamic Perspective
Sacred Text
“But waste not by excess: for God loves not the wasters” (Qur’an 6:141)
Issue
Overfishing can wreak havoc and destroy the environment and marine ecology and completely disrupt the food chain. It can also affect areas with coral reefs, and affect food levels for humans also.
Example/Evidence (how is this teaching expressed in the ethical conduct of adherents?)
Misali Island, near Zanzibar, is off the coast of Tanzania with many coral reefs. Pemba is home to a majority muslim population. Due to illegal overfishing, the ecosystem of Misali Island deteriorated so much that the Tanzanian government declared it a conservation area. This had little effect, and the overfishing continued.
CARE International teamed up with IFEES in an education program called the Misali Ethics Project which had the aim to harness the power of local people’s adherence to Islam and capture the economic benefit of tourism while working to conserve Misali’s natural resources and improve local quality of life. Project was very effective; locals spread these teachings outside the conservation area.
BBC News quoted a local - “It is easy to ignore the government, but no one can break God’s law.” Very good summary article.
Significant Practice - Hajj
Describe Hajj
The Fifth Pillar of Islam, it is a compulsory journey for muslims to attain paradise. They submit themselves fully to Allah through experiences in prayer, asceticism, reciting the Qur’an, and communing with other muslims.
Adherents are barred from doing Hajj while they have unpaid debts, or unresolved conflicts with family, friends or neighbours - this can prompt adherents to make peace with debtors and grievances with others in the name of peace.
Hajj is an expression of one devoting themselves to God. While on Hajj, Mulisms retrace the footsteps of the prophets Abraham, Ishmael and Muhammad, curse Satan, give zakat, pray for forgiveness and give utter devotion to God. All adherents must act in a virtuous manner during hajj, abstaining from sin and sexual relations while in the state of Ihram.
Once Hajj is completed, they leave Mecca with clean slates and are reborn, having all their sins forgiven. Pilgrims who complete Hajj earn the title Hajji for men and Hajjah for women.
Describe how Hajj demonstrates the beliefs of Islam
Ritual Action
Teaching
How They’re Linked
Getting into the state of Ihram
Adherents wear white garments signifying purity and unity with the ummah. They must recite the talbiyah - statement of intention to do hajj - “Here I am at Thy service O Lord, here I am.”
Tawhid
The oneness of God is mirrored in the unity of the ummah
Tawaf - Circumambulation of the Kaaba
Adherents circumambulate the Kaaba anticlockwise seven times. They invoke the name of Allah - "O, Allah! I call on Thee by Thy name”
Akhira
Malā’ikah
Your left side (heart) is kept towards the symbol of God, who judges hearts, not appearances
The angels circumambulate God in heaven - “sways with circular motion” (52:9)
Sa’y - Walking between Safa and Marwa
Adherents walk between the hills of Safa and Marwa back and forth seven times, and then drink from a well named Zamzam.
Kutubullah
& Malā’ikah
Hajar (biblical Hagar, concubine of Abraham) ran between these hills looking for water for her and her son; an angel appeared and miraculously provided water from the Zamzam well. (Recorded in Quran chp. 2)
Wuquf - “Standing” before God on the plain of Mt Arafat
Adherents stand on or near Mt Arafat and pray all night for forgiveness from sins. This is the most important ritual of Hajj.
A’isha hadith: "There is no day on which Allah sets free more slaves from Hell than He does on the Day of 'Arafah."
Akhira
Muhammad delivered his final sermon on this mountain. Adherents prepare for Yawm ad-Dīn (Day of Judgement)
Hadith - “There is no day on which Allah frees more people from the Fire than the Day of Arafah.”
Hadith - “Whoever performs Hajj for the sake of Allah ... will go back (free of sin) as his mother bore him.” (al-Bukhari 1449)
Ramy al-Jamarat - Stoning the Devil
Adherents pick up stones and throw them at three pillars, which represent Satan; 7 at large pillar on 10th day; 7 at all three on days 11 & 12
Rusul
Symbolises rejection of temptation and surrender to Allah “Allah said, ‘Therefore, you (Satan) must get out; you are banished.’”(Qur’an 15:34)
Day of Nahr - Festival & Animal sacrifice
Adherents sacrifice Hady (sacrificial animal); “eat of them and feed the miserable and poor.” (Qur’an 22:28)
Kutubullah & Rusul
Commemorates Ibrahim being commanded by Allah to sacrifice his son Isma’il. (Qur’an 37) Ibrihim was obedient to the call of Allah even though he was strongly tempted by the devil to disobey the command.
Analyse the significance of Hajj for individuals and the community
Hajj is one of the Five Pillars of Islam and is therefore a central religious practice. Its significance lies not simply in the performance of rituals, but in how it transforms the believer and strengthens the global Muslim community (Ummah).
Students should focus on how Hajj shapes belief, identity, behaviour and community cohesion.
Significance for Individuals
Spiritual purification and renewal
Hajj provides Muslims with the opportunity for repentance and spiritual renewal, strengthening their relationship with Allah
Pilgrims believe sincere participation in Hajj can lead to forgiveness of sins, encouraging moral transformation and renewed commitment to Islamic teachings
This experience often leads to lasting changes in behaviour, including stronger adherence to prayer, charity, and ethical living
Deepened submission to Allah
Hajj embodies the central Islamic belief of submission (Islam) to the will of Allah
Participation reinforces the core belief of Tawhid, reminding believers that all aspects of life should be centred on God
Through the intense focus on worship, pilgrims reaffirm that obedience to God is the ultimate purpose of human life
Preparation for the Day of Judgement
The pilgrimage prompts reflection on human mortality and accountability before God
Pilgrims are reminded that all people will ultimately stand before Allah and be judged for their actions
This awareness encourages believers to live more consciously according to Islamic ethical teachings
Connection to sacred history and religious identity
Hajj connects Muslims directly to the lives of key prophetic figures, especially Ibrahim and Muhammad
By engaging with these traditions, pilgrims strengthen their sense of belonging to a continuous religious tradition that stretches back to the prophets
This reinforces personal identity as a member of the Islamic faith community
Significance for the Muslim Community (Ummah)
Unity of the global Muslim community
Hajj brings together millions of Muslims from diverse cultural, ethnic, and national backgrounds
This gathering visibly expresses the Islamic concept of the Ummah — a single global community of believers
The experience reinforces solidarity among Muslims and strengthens a shared religious identity
Equality of believers before Allah
The pilgrimage emphasises that all Muslims are equal before God, regardless of wealth, status, or nationality
This reinforces the Islamic teaching that piety and submission to Allah are the true measures of a person
Collective reaffirmation of faith
The pilgrimage represents a large-scale communal act of worship that publicly expresses shared faith in Allah
Through participation in Hajj, the community collectively reaffirms the core beliefs and values of Islam
Strengthening global Islamic identity
Interaction between Muslims from different societies strengthens awareness of Islam as a global religion
Pilgrims return to their communities with renewed commitment, often influencing others and strengthening the religious life of the wider community
Reinforcement of social responsibility
Hajj emphasises Islamic values such as charity, compassion, and care for the vulnerable
The pilgrimage reminds Muslims that their faith involves responsibility toward the wider community, particularly those in need
Key Analytical Insight
Hajj is significant because it simultaneously transforms the individual believer and strengthens the unity and identity of the global Muslim community, reinforcing central Islamic beliefs and encouraging adherents to live more faithfully according to the will of Allah.
Sacred Text
Source
How Students Can Use It in Analysis of Hajj
“Pilgrimage to the House is a duty owed to Allah by all people who are able to undertake it.”
Qur’an 3:97
Demonstrates that Hajj is a compulsory act of worship and a core expression of submission to Allah as the Fifth Pillar of Islam.
“Proclaim the pilgrimage to all people. They will come to you on foot and on every lean camel from every distant path.”
Qur’an 22:27
Shows that Hajj is intended as a universal gathering of Muslims, supporting analysis about the global unity of the Ummah.
“And complete the Hajj and the ‘Umrah for Allah.”
Qur’an 2:196
Reinforces that Hajj must be performed solely for Allah, supporting analysis about devotion and submission to God.
“Then depart from the place from where all the people depart and ask forgiveness of Allah. Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful.”
Qur’an 2:199
Supports analysis that Hajj is a time of repentance and forgiveness, highlighting its role in spiritual purification.
“Whoever performs Hajj for the sake of Allah and avoids indecent speech and wrongdoing will return as free from sin as the day his mother gave birth to him.”
Hadith – Sahih al-Bukhari
Demonstrates the belief that Hajj cleanses pilgrims of sins, explaining its significance for spiritual renewal and moral transformation.
“There is no day on which Allah frees more people from the Fire than the Day of Arafah.”
Hadith – Sahih Muslim
Supports analysis that the Wuquf at Arafat emphasises repentance and preparation for judgement, reinforcing belief in the Akhira (afterlife).
“And fear the Day when you will be returned to Allah.”
Qur’an 2:281
Demonstrates that Hajj encourages reflection on accountability before God on the Day of Judgement.
“Say, ‘Indeed, my prayer, my sacrifice, my living and my dying are for Allah, Lord of the worlds.’”
Qur’an 6:162
Shows that acts performed during Hajj express total devotion and submission to Allah, reinforcing Tawhid.
“And whoever honours the symbols of Allah – indeed, it is from the piety of hearts.”
Qur’an 22:32
Supports analysis that participating in the rituals of Hajj reflects deep faith and reverence for God.
“And [remember] when We designated for Abraham the site of the House… and purify My House for those who circle it.”
Qur’an 22:26
Demonstrates how Hajj connects Muslims to the prophetic tradition of Ibrahim, strengthening religious identity and historical continuity.
“Indeed in the Messenger of Allah you have an excellent example.”
Qur’an 33:21
Supports analysis that pilgrims follow the example of Prophet Muhammad, reinforcing connection to sacred history.
“Indeed this community of yours is one community, and I am your Lord, so worship Me.”
Qur’an 21:92
Demonstrates that Islam views believers as one global community (Ummah), which Hajj visibly expresses.
“And hold firmly to the rope of Allah all together and do not become divided.”
Qur’an 3:103
Supports analysis that Hajj promotes unity and solidarity among Muslims worldwide.
“Indeed the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you.”
Qur’an 49:13
Demonstrates the Islamic teaching that all believers are equal before God, which is symbolised during Hajj.
“All mankind is from Adam and Eve… an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab… except by piety and good action.”
Hadith – Farewell Sermon
Supports analysis that Hajj highlights equality and brotherhood within the Ummah.
“Eat from the sacrificial animals and feed the needy and the poor.”
Qur’an 22:28
Demonstrates that Hajj promotes charity and care for the poor, reinforcing social responsibility in Islam.
“Indeed Satan is an enemy to you, so take him as an enemy.”
Qur’an 35:6
Supports analysis that rituals such as Ramy al-Jamarat symbolise rejecting evil and temptation.
“Allah said, ‘Therefore you are expelled and cursed.’”
Qur’an 15:34
Reinforces the Islamic belief in the rejection of Satan, symbolised during Hajj rituals.
Religion & Peace
Section IV - Question 33 = 1 x 20-mark extended response
Compulsory SST Glossary
Christianity
Islam
Agape
Self-sacrificial
Jesus’ Commandment of Love
Works of Mercy
Arnaud Beltrame
Common Grace
Forgiveness
Confession / Penance / Reconciliation
CHIPS
Qur’an
Hadith
Jihadun Nafs
Sufism
Greater Jihad
Lesser Jihad
As-Salam
Muhammad
A’isha bint Abu Bakr
Salat
A few important words about this topic:
There are four syllabus dot points for this topic. They are:
Investigate the understanding of peace and how it is informed through significant writings within sacred texts for TWO religious traditions drawn from:
Christianity – the New Testament
Islam – Qur’an and Hadith
Outline the principal teachings about peace in TWO religious traditions
Demonstrate how TWO religious traditions guide the individual in achieving inner peace
Discuss how TWO religious traditions are contributing to world peace
This book covers TWO principal teachings on peace for Christianity and THREE for Islam. These form the basis for your body paragraphs.
If Question 33 asks for ONE religious tradition, write three body paragraphs on ISLAM
If Question 33 asks for TWO religious traditions, do two body paragraphs for both ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY
For each principal teaching on peace (PTP), there are corresponding examples for INNER PEACE and WORLD PEACE. These are directly underneath the PTPs.
Christianity
Watch this video and make notes!
Principal Teaching on Peace: Agape
Agape is the Greek word for selfless love. Mediaeval philosopher and theologian, St Thomas Aquinas defines this love in his Summa Theologica as “to will the good of another.”
Through self-sacrificial love, Jesus makes possible the restoration of a relationship with God through His saving death, resurrection and ascension. This is agape par excellence. Through love, God makes peace.
“But God proves his love for us in that while we still were sinners Christ died for us.” (Romans 5:8)
“Whoever does not love does not know God, for God is love. … In this is love, not that we loved God but that he loved us and sent his Son to be the atoning sacrifice for our sins.” (1 John 4:8-10)
“...through him God was pleased to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven, by making peace through the blood of his cross.” (Colossians 1:20)
“‘Truly I tell you, just as you did it to one of the least of these who are members of my family, you did it to me.’” (Matthew 25:40)
This love forms the foundation of the ethical teaching of Jesus’ Commandment of Love - “Love one another as I have loved you.” (John 13:34). Jesus calls adherents to imitate him, to create peace between people through love. God makes peace with humanity, so humanity should make peace.
“No one has greater love than this, to lay down one’s life for one’s friends.” (John 15:13)
Christ is believed by Christians to be King of the Universe who rules in agape, and is described in a Catholic Latin hymn for the Feast of Christ the King: “Not with sword, force and fear He subjects peoples, but lifted up on the Cross He lovingly draws all things to Himself.” Christ is the King of Peace.
Inner Peace Examples:
Christians place great emphasis on the Works of Mercy as outlined in Matthew 25: The Parable of the Sheep and the Goats. This is especially true during the time of Lent, where Catholics, Orthodox, and many other Christian denominations prepare for the celebration of Easter through prayer, fasting and almsgiving.
The Works of Mercy include: to feed the hungry, to give drink to the thirsty, to clothe the naked, to give shelter to travellers, to visit the sick, to visit the imprisoned, and to bury the dead.
The Works of Mercy are small acts of sacrifice that Christians can do every day to make peace between individuals, which helps bring inner peace.
Arnaud Beltrame, a French police officer and practising catholic, traded places with a hostage in March 2018 and was killed by a terrorist.
Like Christ, he found peace in trading his life for the good of others. Self-sacrifice gives peace to self and others.
World Peace Example:
Common Grace is an Australian Christian organisation which seeks to find common ground between groups in society, building peace between them.
From their website:
“We have read the scriptures and heard God’s call to seek justice, love and mercy”
“We have been loved by Jesus, and therefore must love our neighbours and our enemies.” Peace-building is a core part of Christian practice.
Since 2018, the Common Grace movement has gathered annually to pray, lament, learn and act together to #StopAboriginalDeathsInCustody. They do this out of love for the oppressed and marginalised in our society, and build peace between groups.
They hold an annual Online Prayer Vigil for Aboriginal Deaths in Custody. It was held on 26th September 2023.
Aboriginal deaths in custody continues to be an ongoing injustice facing Aboriginal families and communities. Over 500 Aboriginal people have died in custody since the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody released their report in 1991, with 339 recommendations. They grieve the lack of implementation of these recommendations by the Australian Government and the compounded grief that First Nations peoples continue to experience.
Principal Teaching on Peace: Forgiveness
God forgives Christians of their sins, bringing inner peace. To have peace with others, forgiveness is necessary, but it’s hard work.
St Paul said “...just as the Lord has forgiven you, so you also must forgive.” (Colossians 3:13)
Jesus explicitly stated that forgiveness of others is a precondition for forgiveness from God:
“For if you forgive other people when they sin against you, your heavenly Father will also forgive you.” (Matthew 6:14)
"Then Peter came to Jesus and asked, 'Lord, how many times shall I forgive my brother or sister who sins against me? Up to seven times?' Jesus answered, 'I tell you, not seven times, but seventy-seven times.'” (Matthew 18: 21-22)
The Parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-32) (depiction by artist Rembrandt above) outlines the forgiving nature of God.
God brings Christians peace through forgiveness, and demands of Christians peace through forgiveness; extending this peace to enemies and those who persecute them.
Extra info: The Jewish law was really heavy on crime & punishment. Eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth.
Jesus said “You have heard that it was said, ‘An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.'' But I say to you, Do not resist an evildoer. But if anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn the other also.” (Matthew 5:38-39)
Jesus here reinterprets the Mosaic law to emphasise peace above retaliation; to resist evil while also resisting the temptation to hate the evildoer.
Inner Peace Examples:
Sacrament of Penance / Confession / Reconciliation
Catholics and Orthodox Christians participate in the Sacrament of Reconciliation in order to obtain God’s forgiveness and peace:
Catholic prayer of absolution: “God, the Father of mercies, through the death and resurrection of his Son has reconciled the world to himself and sent the Holy Spirit among us for the forgiveness of sins; through the ministry of the Church may God give you pardon and peace, and I absolve you from your sins in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen”
Conclusion of Russian Orthodox prayer of absolution: “Now, having no further care for the sins which you have confessed, depart in peace, knowing such sins are as far from you as the East is from the West. Amen.”
Oatlands Car Crash: Abdallah & Sakr family Tragedy
Danny and Leila Abdallah forgave the drunk driver who killed three of their children and their cousin, and prayed for him. “We have forgiven him so we are able to grieve peacefully,” Leila said.
1st February 2020 was a tragic day for the family as they lost 3 children and a niece “My family was cut in half” (Laila Abdallah). 1st February 2021 the Abdallah & Sakr families established i4give Day, an initiative to be held annually on the anniversary of the crash, encouraging others to forgive and help those who have suffered through trauma, and providing resources in how to forgive.
World Peace Example:
Christian International Peace Service (CHIPS) is a small British charity founded by Roy Calvocoressi OBE in the 1960s to help with the war between the Greeks and Turks in Cyprus.
CHIPS has since worked in other parts of the world, including the Philippines, UK and Ghana.
The Nanumba and Konkomba tribes of northern Ghana have been enemies for more than 30 years. At its root lies issues of land ownership, power, and identity. Outbreaks of widespread violence have been rare but devastating, leaving communities fractured and divided and more than 400 villages destroyed, up to 12,000 people killed and over 150,000 displaced.
Teams go out from their shared home to the surrounding villages, taking people from both sides – Konkomba and Nanumba working together. They run practical peacemaking projects that seek to break down barriers and build trust, addressing the causes of conflict including poverty and creating opportunities for sustainable development.
Watch this video.
Islam
Principal Teaching on Peace: As-Salam - Allah is Peace
One of the 99 Beautiful Names of Allah is As-Salam - “the Source/Embodiment of Peace”. “Allah is the...source of peace and perfection” (59:23). Compulsory viewing:Beautiful Names of Allah (pt.7)- As-Salam - Dr. Shaykh Yasir Qadhi
Muslims greet one another with the phrase “As-salamu alaykum” meaning “Peace be upon you.” They wish the peace of Allah upon the other. Response: “Wa-alaykum salam”
According to Islamic tradition, the origin of the greeting "Peace be upon you" dates back to the first human, Adam:
Hadith: “Allah said: Go and greet with peace these groups of assembled angels and listen to how they greet you, for this will be the greeting among your progeny. Adam said: Peace be upon you. The angels said: Peace be upon you and the mercy of Allah. Thus, they added the mercy of Allah” (Sahih Muslim 2841)
Allah’s home, heaven, is a “home of peace” (10:25), and he calls all believers to al-Jannah as a reward for doing his will. Allah loves the “doers of good” (3:134) and “those who act justly” (5:42)
Inner Peace Example:
Du'a is an Arabic term that translates to "supplication" or "invocation." In Islamic tradition, it refers to the personal prayers or supplications made by Muslims to ask for guidance, assistance, forgiveness, or anything else from Allah (God). Unlike the five daily ritual prayers (Salah or Salat) that have fixed formats and times, du'a can be made at any time, in any language, and in any circumstance. It's a direct and personal communication between the believer and Allah.
There are many forms and purposes for du'a:
Seeking Guidance or Decision-making: Sometimes known as "Istikhara," believers might ask Allah to guide them in making the best choice when faced with a decision.
Repentance: Called "Istighfar," this is when believers seek forgiveness for their sins.
Seeking Help: In times of difficulty or distress, Muslims might turn to du'a to ask for relief or assistance.
Gratitude and Praise: While many du'as are about seeking help or forgiveness, they can also be expressions of gratitude and praise to Allah for the blessings one has.
Special Occasions: There are specific supplications for various occasions such as during rain, when hearing thunder, before eating, after eating, when visiting the sick, etc.
The Qur'an and Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad) contain many examples of du'as, and many Muslims will memorise and recite these. However, spontaneous and personal du'as, spoken from the heart in one's own words, are also highly encouraged.
The act of making du'a is seen as a demonstration of a person's dependence on Allah, recognizing His power and authority over all things. It also underscores the close, personal relationship between the believer and the Divine.
Du'a offers profound benefits in cultivating inner peace. Sacred texts, including the Qur'an and Hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad), highlight the importance and effect of du'a. Here's how du'a promotes inner peace, reinforced with references from Islamic scriptures:
Direct Communication with the Divine: Du'a represents a believer's direct line of communication to Allah.
Qur'an: "And when My servants ask you concerning Me, indeed I am near. I respond to the invocation of the supplicant when he calls upon Me." (Qur'an, 2:186)
Cathartic Release: By pouring out emotions and concerns to Allah, individuals find a sense of release and relief.
Hadith: The Prophet Muhammad said, "Du'a is worship." (Sunan Abu Dawood, 1479)
Fostering Gratitude: Recognizing and expressing gratitude through du'a enhances contentment.
Qur'an: "And (remember) when your Lord proclaimed: 'If you give thanks (by accepting faith and worship), I will give you more (of My Blessings); but if you are thankless (i.e., disbelievers), verily My punishment is indeed severe.'" (Qur'an, 14:7)
Acceptance and Surrender: Believing that Allah's will prevails fosters surrender and acceptance, leading to peace.
Hadith: The Prophet Muhammad said, "The supplication of every one of you is granted if he does not grow impatient and says: I supplicated but it was not granted." (Sahih Muslim, 2735)
World Peace Example:
Brothers in Need is an Australian aid organisation run by Muslims who seek to spread the peace of Allah through bringing social justice to those in need
They visit the sick and elderly, feed the homeless, and help the poor and needy struggling through difficult times
“Coming closer to God, it allowed me to now serve my community and give back” - through being close to Allah, the organisation brings peace to others
Principal Teaching on Peace: Jihad al-nafs - struggle against self
Jihad means struggle. Usual way people understand jihad is as the armed struggle against unbelievers, whereas Sufism, a branch of Islam, teaches the idea that the greater jihad is the struggle to make oneself conform with the will of Allah
Sufism also stresses that an adherent must first transcend their selfish desires and only then will they start to struggle for inner peace.
Islam teaches that through struggling against one’s selfish desires, one finds peace in the “remembrance of God” (13:28)
Sacred Text - Hadith INNER PEACE “A strong person is not the person who throws his adversaries to the ground. A strong person is the one who contains himself when he is angry.” (Al-Muwatta 47.12)
Sacred Text - Hadith WORLD PEACE: The most excellent jihad is to speak the truth in the face of a tyrant.
Inner Peace Example:
On 15th March 2019, mass shootings occurred at mosques in a terrorist attack in Christchurch, NZ during Friday Prayer. 51 were killed and 40 injured.
Farid Ahmed lost his wife in the attack, and he “contain[ed] himself when he [was] angry” through forgiving the attacker - “I don’t have any grudge against him; I have forgiven him, and I am praying for him.”
World Peace Example:
China has over 50 ethnic minorities. One of these, a muslim ethnic minority called Uyghurs (pronounced WEE-gher), are currently being persecuted by the Chinese government, who are attempting to “re-educate” parts of the population in concentration camps.
The Uyghur Human Rights Project “speaks the truth in the face of [tyranny]” by advocating for the Uyghur population
In July 2020, the UHRP published the report, "'The Happiest Muslims in the World': Disinformation, Propaganda, and Uyghtheur Crisis," which analyses the Chinese Communist Party's counter-narrative in response to escalating international alarm about human rights violations against Uyghurs.
They were nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 2022.
Principal Teaching on Peace: Muhammad is the model of virtue and peace
The life and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad provide Muslims with a comprehensive model for both inner and world peace. By studying his Seerah (biography) and Hadith (his sayings and actions), Muslims gain insights into how to cultivate peace within themselves and promote it in the world around them. Here are ways in which the Prophet's example assists in this endeavour:
Model of Patience and Resilience: Throughout his life, the Prophet Muhammad faced numerous challenges, from personal losses to intense persecution. His patience in the face of adversity serves as a lesson for Muslims to remain resilient and find inner peace even in trying circumstances.
Hadith: "The case of a believer is wonderful; there is good for him in everything, and this is exclusive for the believer. If something of happiness befalls him, he is thankful, and it is good for him; and if something of affliction befalls him, he is patient, and it is good for him." (Muslim)
Emphasis on Forgiveness: The Prophet often chose the path of forgiveness over revenge. After conquering Makkah, a city where he and his followers were once persecuted, he granted general amnesty. This teaches Muslims the power of forgiveness in mending relations and ensuring societal peace.
Qur'an: "Keep to forgiveness (O Muhammad), and enjoin kindness, and turn away from the ignorant." (7:199)
Regular Reflection and Meditation: Before receiving the first revelation, Muhammad used to retreat to the Cave of Hira for deep reflection. This practice underscores the importance of meditation and introspection in achieving inner peace.
Promotion of Justice: The Prophet stressed the importance of justice as a foundation for societal peace. An unjust society can never achieve long-lasting peace.
Hadith: "Beware! Whosoever oppresses a Mu'ahid (a person who is granted the pledge of protection by the Muslims) or snatches (any of) his rights or causes him harm which he cannot bear, or takes anything from him without his permission, Then "I WILL FIGHT AGAINST SUCH (MUSLIM) ON THE DAY OF JUDGEMENT." (Sunan Abi Dawood)
Establishment of Brotherhood: One of Muhammad's significant acts after migrating to Medina was establishing a brotherhood between the migrants (Muhajirun) and the residents (Ansar). This act highlighted the importance of social solidarity and unity in ensuring community peace.
Interfaith Dialogue and Respect: The Prophet engaged in dialogs with various religious groups, promoting understanding and peace between different communities. The Charter of Medina, which he established, guaranteed the rights of all Medinan citizens, including Jews and pagans. “Above all we can learn from Muhammad how to make peace… to extirpate greed, hatred and contempt.” -- Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet (1991).
Emphasis on Inner Peace Through Worship: The Prophet regarded acts of worship, like prayer and fasting, not merely as rituals but as means to attain inner tranquillity.
Hadith: "O Bilal, call for the prayer (Adhan), give us comfort by it." (Sunan Abi Dawood)
Promotion of Good Character and Ethics: By emphasising good character, truthfulness, and ethics, the Prophet laid the groundwork for peaceful interactions in society.
Hadith: "The most complete of the believers in faith are those with the best character." (Jami' at-Tirmidhi)
By emulating the teachings and character of the Prophet Muhammad, Muslims can work towards achieving a state of inner peace and also play a role in establishing peace and harmony in the wider world.
Inner Peace Example:
Abdullahi Abubakar is a Nigerian Imam who housed 262 men, women, and children when attacked by Islamist gunmen in July 2018. He said: "I first took the women to my personal house to hide them. Then I took the men to the mosque"
Abubakar later told the BBC that he wanted to help because more than 40 years ago, the Christians in the area had allowed the Muslims to build the mosque. “They had freely given over the land to the Muslim community,” he said.
1 year later he was given a Religious Freedom Award from the US government. “Imam Abdullahi’s courage in the face of imminent danger and his history of outreach across religious divides demonstrates his lifelong commitment to promoting interfaith understanding and peace,” US State Department said in a brief profile of the imam published on its website.
World Peace Example:
Muslim Aid Australia (MAA International), based in Yagoona, “demonstrates the Australian identity through universal compassion [and] peace building.” Their values “spring from the Islamic values of charity, peace and excellence”.
They provide emergency aid to those affected by the devastating floods in Pakistan in 2022 that have killed over 1200 people, destroyed over 800,000 homes and displaced over a million people. The items include tents, blankets, tarpaulin sheets, jerry cans, kitchen items like pots, pans, plates and cups, emergency food packs and shelter kits.