Exam 1

Chapter 1 Introduction to Employee Training and Development

Objectives

1. What is training? Why is it important?

2. Discuss training as a competitive advantage for organizations

3. Describe the audience and channels for training

4. Discuss various aspects of the training design process

5. Describe the amount and types of training occurring in the U.S. companies

What is Training?

Training is a planned effort by a company to facilitate learning of competencies, knowledge, skills and behaviors of employees.

Importance of Training

• Equips individuals with necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSA)

• Attracts employees to companies, engages them, and promotes retention

• Create a competitive advantage

Key Components of Learning

Which Learning is More Important? Formal or Informal?

While formal training is important, much of what is learned occurs through informal learning

There are several characteristics of informal learning:

• Learner initiated

• Occurs without a trainer or instructor

• Motivated by an intent to develop

• Does not occur in a formal learning setting

• Breadth, depth, and timing are controlled by the employee

Training vs. Development

Training (Current Job)

• Facilitated learning job-related competencies, knowledge, skills or behavior

Development (Future Job/Career)

• Future focused—includes formal education, job experiences, relationships, and assessments

A.D.D.I.E for Training Design

The Training Design Process

Forces that Impact Learning

1. Economic Cycles

   • Retiring workforce

   • Scarcity of Skilled Labor

   • Retention of Talent

2. Globalization

   • Scarcity of talent in emerging markets

   • Immigrants required to fill high & low-skilled positions

3. Value of intangible assets and human capital

   • Human Capital - Competence and knowledge of employees

   • Intellectual Capital - Patents & copyrights, etc.

   • Social Capital - Informal networking, coaching/mentoring relationships

   • Customer Capital - Brands, Customer loyalty, etc.

4. Focus on links to business strategy

   • Training aligned to business strategy to achieve strategic goal

   • Training is an integral part of business success

   • Training needs - one size does not fit all

5. Changing demographics and diversity

   • The median age of the labor force will be 42.3 years in 2026

   • Between 2016 and 2026, the U.S. labor force will be more ethnically diverse due to immigration

   • Training helps promote diversity

6. Generational differences

   • There are five generations in today’s workforce

7. Talent Management

   • Systematic, planned and strategic effort by a company to attract, retain, develop, and motivate highly-skilled talent.

8. Customer Service and Quality emphasis

   • Total Quality Management (TQM) - Company-wide effort to continuously improve the way work is done.

   • Use quality design & effective learning processes & focus on ROI.

9. New Technology

   • Value for training added through social media

   • Enables knowledge sharing/best practices

   • Created communities of practice

10. High-performance models of work systems

    • Employees interact to assemble a product of provide a service

    • Cross Training - Training of employees in a range of skills to fill different roles

    • Virtual Teams - Teams separated by time, geographic, and organizational boundaries

Chapter 2: Strategic Training

Learning Objectives

1. Learning Organization

2. Learning and Development Strategy

3. Factors that Influence Learning

4. Structure of the Training function

5. Learning or Training Brand

The Learning Organization

A learning organization is characterized as:

• A company with an enhanced capacity to learn, adapt, and change

• A culture where employees seek, share, and apply new knowledge to improve performance

• An organization where training is a part of a larger system to enhance human capital

Human performing companies are more than five times as likely to have a strong learning culture

Strategic Training & Development Process

Common Strategic Initiatives

1. Diversify the learning portfolio

2. Expand who is trained

3. Accelerate the pace of learning

4. Improve customer service

5. Provide development opportunities and communicate with employees

6. Capture and share knowledge

7. Align training with the company’s direction

8. Ensure the work environment supports learning and transfer

Balanced Score Card

Organizations are using Balanced Score Cards to measure and provide feedback to organizations.

Factors that Influence Training

Organizational Characteristics that Influence Training

1. Roles of employees and managers

2. Top management support

3. Integration of business units

4. Global presence

5. Business Conditions

6. Other HRM practices

7. Strategic value of jobs and employee uniqueness

8. Unionization

9. Staff involvement

Strategic Value and Uniqueness

• Knowledge-based workers—heavy training

• Job-based employees—less training than knowledge workers

• Contract employee—limited training

• Alliance/partnerships—sharing expertise and team training

Training for Different Business Strategies

Concentration Strategy

• Skill currency and the development of the existing workforce (EX: SW Airlines)

Internal Growth Strategy

• Creation of new jobs and tasks, innovation, and talent management (EX: UA & Continental merger)

External Growth Strategy

• Integration, redundancy, and restructuring (EX: Amazon & Whole Foods)

Disinvestment Strategy

• Efficiency (Ex: Ebay and Paypal)

Training Department Structures

Change Management in Training

Four change-related problems need to be addressed before the implementation of any new training practice

• Resistance to change

• Loss of Control

• Power imbalance

• Task redefinition challenges

Branding Training

Despite its value, some individuals may not value training. Therefore, the brand for the training function should be built. Some ways to do that:

• Involve target audience

• Demonstrate how training can solve business problems

• Show examples of previous successes

• Identify a champion who supports training

• Advertise through multiple channels

• Speak in terms employees understand

Chapter 3: Needs Assessment

Learning Objectives

1. Identify different methods used in needs assessment.

2. Create conditions to ensure that employees are receptive to training.

3. Discuss the steps involved in conducting a task analysis.

4. Explain competency models and the process used to develop them.

The Training Design Process

Why is the Needs Assessment Important?

• Training may not be the solution to a performance problem

• Money will be spent on training programs that are unnecessary

• Programs may have the wrong content, objectives, or methods

• Trainees may be sent to programs for which they do not have the basic skills, prerequisite skills, or confidence to learn

• Training will not deliver the expected results

Who should participate?

It is important that all relevant stakeholders be involved.

Different stakeholders bring unique and needed perspectives to the process

• Company leaders- helps integrate with business strategy

• Mid-level managers- provide budget, determine target audience and jobs that require training

• Trainers- align content with business strategy and determine conducive ways to train employees

• Employees-diagnose their learning needs for current and future job needs

• Subject matter experts (SMEs)- Possess expertise knowledge about the training issue at hand

How Should Data be Collected?

Various methods may be used to collect information. No one method is necessarily superior to another. There are strengths and limitations of each, and each may be more relevant in some contexts than others.

• Observation

• Survey

• Interview

• Focus Groups & Crowdsourcing

• Documentation

• Technology

• Historical Data Review

Observation

Advantages

• Relevant Data

• Minimizes interruption of work

Disadvantages

• requires skill in observation

• employee behavior may be affected by observation

Survey

Advantages

• inexpensive

• can collect data from a large number of individuals

• data easily summarized

Disadvantages

• requires time

• potentially low response rates

• may lack detail

• only provides information directly related to questions asked

Interview

Advantages

• good at uncovering detail

• can explore unexpected issues

• questions can be modified

Disadvantages

• time consuming and difficult to schedule

• difficult to analyze

• need skilled interviewers

• can be threatening to SMEs

• SMEs may provide socially desirable information

Focus Groups and Crowdsourcing

Advantages

• useful for complex or controversial issues

• can explore unexpected issues

• reduces risk that training will be rejected by stakeholders

Disadvantages

• time consuming to organize

• group members may only provide socially desirable responses

Documentation

Advantages

• good source of information

• objective

• good source of task information for new jobs and jobs in the process of being created

Disadvantages

• may be difficult to understand

• potentially obsolete

Technology

Advantages

• objective

• minimizes work interruption

• limited human involvement

Disadvantages

• may threaten employees

• managers may use data to punish versus train

Historical Data Review

Advantages

• provides data related to performance and practices

Disadvantages

• data may be inaccurate, incomplete, or not fully reflective of performance

Three Levels of Analysis

Organization Analysis

There are three factors to examine to determine if training is the appropriate solution

• The company’s strategic direction

• Social support to ensure that individuals are motivated to attend training, learn, and transfer

• Training resources, time, and expertise (Buy vs. Build Option)

Strategy → Employee Motivation → Time/Resources

Person Analysis

Helps to identify who needs training

Also known as gap analysis, which involves determining what is responsible for the differences between current and expected performance.

Involves obtaining a variety of information on person characteristics, inputs, outputs, consequences, and feedback.

Gap Analysis → Current State of Performance → Future State of Performance

Person Characteristics

1. Basic skills: Core skills required to perform successfully on the job

2. Cognitive Ability: Relates to intellectual capacity and general intelligence- key determinant of training success

3. Reading Ability: Reading level of the training material should not exceed that required by the job and trainees’ abilities

4. Self- Efficacy: Trainee’s confidence to learn and apply the training content and perform on the job.

5. Needs/Career Interests: Creating connections with current job needs/gaps and future career aspirations

6. Age: Adapting training to meet age barriers. For e.g. mental capacities decrease from age twenty to age seventy

7. Generational Differences: Training should cater to different generational learning preferences

8. Inputs: Situational support (equipment, budget etc.) and Social Support (manager and peer willingness to provide feedback and reinforcement) are required

9. Outputs: Clarity on job performance outcomes

10. Consequences: Type of rewards that employees receive for performing well. Aligning training to personal/career aspirations

11. Feedback: Employees need frequent, specific and detailed feedback to influence performance

Is Training the Best Solution?

Is the performance problem important and potentially costly?

Do employees know how to perform effectively?

Can employees demonstrate the correct knowledge or behavior?

Were performance expectations clear?

Were positive consequences offered for good performance?

Did employees receive appropriate feedback?

Were other solutions too expensive or unrealistic?

Perform a root cause analysis

Task Analysis - KSAO

Results in a description of the tasks to be performed and the knowledge, skills and abilities required to perform

Other requirements include conditions under which tasks are performed

To complete a task, employees must possess the necessary KSAOs.

Task Analysis Steps

Competency Models

• A competency model identifies the competencies necessary for a given job

• They provide descriptions of competencies that are common for an entire occupation, organization, job family, or specific job

• They are useful for variety of HR practices, including recruiting, selection, and training and development

Developing a Competency Model

Scope of Needs Assessment

• Often managers and trainers may avoid conducting a needs assessment.

• They may provide a variety of excuses

• Without conducting a proper needs assessment, training will not be well targeted

• A needs assessment in practice would not collect all information presented in the text, but should be tailored to the situation at hand.

• Due to time constraints, sometimes a rapid needs assessment would be appropriate

• A rapid needs assessment refers to a needs assessment that is done quickly and accurately without sacrificing the quality

Basic Skills

• Basic skills are those necessary for employees to learn training content and perform successfully on the job

• A literacy audit can be used to assess employees’ basic skill levels

Cognitive Ability

• Cognitive ability relates to intellectual capacity and general intelligence

• Includes verbal comprehension, quantitative ability, and reasoning ability

• Assessing cognitive ability is important because it is one of the strongest determinants of training success

Reading Ability

Training material should be evaluated to ensure that its reading level does not exceed that required by the job and trainees’ abilities

If trainees’ reading ability is low:

• use other training methods

• reassign trainees to different positions

• provide remedial training

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy relates to trainees’ beliefs that they can master training content and perform on the job

• If trainees lack confidence, motivation will suffer

Trainee’s confidence to learn and apply

Enhancing Self-Efficacy

• Let trainees know the goal is to improve performance and not reveal incompetence

• Providing information about training prior to the program

• Describe the success of peers

• Emphasize that learning is under trainees’ control

• Emphasize that trainees have the ability to overcome obstacles

Preparing and motivating the trainee (Ensuring employee/trainee readiness for learning)

Needs, Career Interests, & Goals

• Awareness of training needs, career interests, and goals enhances motivation to learn

• The link between training and areas where employees need to improve should be emphasized

Creating connections with current job needs/gaps and future career aspirations

Age

There is biological evidence that certain mental capacities decrease from age twenty to age seventy

However, with age comes experience

Trainers may need to adapt training design and delivery accordingly

Generational Differences

• Gen Zs are entrepreneurial and tech-savvy

• Millennials are optimistic, embrace technology, and appreciate diversity

• Gen Xers need feedback and flexibility and dislike close supervision

• Baby Boomers are competitive, hardworking, and concerned with fairness

• Traditionalists are patriotic, loyal, and have a great deal of knowledge

Training should cater to different generational learning preferences

Inputs

Inputs relate to resources employees need to help them learn

Situational constraints include lack of tools, equipment, materials, supplies, budgetary support, and time to perform

Social support refers to manager and peer willingness to provide feedback and reinforcement

Outputs

Outputs refer to job performance outcomes

Therefore, it is important to assess employee perceptions of performance expectations

Trainees need to understand the level of expected proficiency

Consequences

Consequences refer to the type of rewards that employees receive for performing well

If employees do not believe rewards are adequate, motivation will suffer

Motivation to learn can be enhanced by communicating the job, personal, and career benefits of learning

Feedback

Feedback refers to the information that employees receive

Employees need specific and detailed feedback

Feedback also needs to be frequent to influence performance

Chapter 4: Learning and Transfer of Training

Learning Objectives

1. Discuss the five types of learner outcomes.

2. Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional design.

3. Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training program.

4. Explain the features of instruction and the work environment that are necessary for learning and transfer of training.

The Training Design Process

Learning and Transfer

Both learning and transfer are necessary for training effectiveness

• Learning: Relatively permanent change in human capabilities

• Transfer: Trainees applying what they have learned to their jobs

• Generalization: Applying what was learned to situations that are similar but not identical to those in training

• Maintenance: Continued use of what was learned over time

Multiple Learning Outcomes

• Verbal Information: Specialized and bodies of knowledge (i.e. name the first 3 U.S. Presidents)

• Intellectual Skills: Concepts and rules critical to solve problems (i.e. design and code a computer program to track customer complaints)

• Motor Skills: Coordination of physical movements (i.e. workout on a treadmill for 30 minutes three times a week)

• Attitudes: Beliefs and feelings that makes a person to behave in a certain way (i.e. respond to all incoming mails within 24 hours

• Cognitive Strategies: Strategies that regulate thinking and learning (i.e. use three different strategies to analyze stock volatility)

Learning Theories

Reinforcement Theory - Repeating or avoiding a behavior

Individuals are motivated to perform or avoid behaviors because of past outcomes of behavior

Trainers need to identify what outcomes learners find most positive and negative and then link these outcomes to acquiring new knowledge and skills

Implications of Training: Behavior modification is critical to training and is based on reinforcement

Different Types of Reinforcements

• Positive Reinforcement: Desirable outcome → Desirable behavior

• Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant outcome (increasing a frequency of a behavior)

• Punishment: Undesirable behavior → unpleasant outcome (decreasing a frequency of a behavior)

• Extinction: Eliminating a behavior

Social Learning Theory - Learning from others

Individuals learn by observing models of behavior, emulating behavior, and receiving reinforcement and rewards

Learning results from directly experiencing the consequences of using a skill, observing others, and seeing the consequences of their behavior

Process of Social Learning Theory

• Attention to aspects of performance

• Retention of skills or behavior

• Motor (physical) reproduction of skills or behavior

• Motivational processes — repeating behaviors that are reinforced

Implications for Training: While choosing training methods, include videos to model desirable behavior

Self-efficacy is Critical

Self-efficacy reflects an individual’s belief that he/she can successfully learn knowledge and skills

Self-efficacy can be increased through:

• Verbal persuasion - words of encouragement

• Logical verification - relationship between a new and old task

• Modeling skills - taught by someone who has mastered it

• Past accomplishments - placing in situations where employees are known to succeed

Goal Setting Theory

Behavior is a result of a person’s committed goals (challenging goals result in better performance

Goal Orientation: Goals held by a trainee in a learning situation

• Learning orientation relates to trying to increase ability and competence in a task. People with a learning orientation view mistakes as useful for learning

• Performance orientation refers to a desire to look good in comparison to others. Individuals with a performance orientation avoid mistakes because they do not want to appear foolish

Implications for Training: While designing programs include goals and objectives

Need Theories

Both Abraham Maslow and Clayton Alderfer believed in hierarchy of needs - key difference is that Alderfer stated if higher level needs are not met employees may refocus on lower level needs

David McClelland focused on achievement, affiliation and power

Implications for Training: If certain basic needs are not met, motivation may suffer

Expectancy Theory - Value placed on outcome

Implications for Training: Learning occurs when trainees value the outcomes

Adult Learning Theory

Adults have the need to know “why”

Adults have a need to be self-directed

Adults bring more work-related experiences to the learning situation

Adults enter a learning experience with a problem-centered approach

Adults are extrinsically and intrinsically motivated

Implications for Training: Problem centered approach & immediate application of content

Information Processing Theory

Implications for Training: Internal processes that occurs control the learning & retention of training content

Transfer of Training Theory

Transfer can be enhanced by understanding the type of skill

Closed Skills

• Involve responding to predictable situations with standardized responses

Open Skills

• Involve responding to variable situations with adaptive responses

Theory of Identical Elements

Transfer will be maximized when the tasks, materials, and equipment in training are similar to the work environment

Identical elements are particularly important for promoting near transfer, applying learned capabilities exactly to the work situation

Stimulus Generalization Approach

Transfer is enhanced when the most important features, or general principles, are emphasized during training

The stimulus generalization approach is appropriate to promote far transfer, applying learned capabilities to the work environment when it is not identical to training

Cognitive Theory of Transfer

Transfer depends on a trainee’s ability to retrieve capabilities (based on information processing theory)

Meaningful material and coding scheme enhance storage and recall of training

Implications for Training: Content includes working on a business challenge & discuss potential application of training content

Mental & Physical Processes

Learning depends on the learner’s cognitive processes, organizing the content in a mental representation, and relating the content to existing knowledge from long-term memory

Learning Strategies

Different learning strategies influence how training content is coded

• Rehearsal - learning through repetition

• Organization - finding similarities and themes

• Elaboration - relating the material to other more familiar knowledge

The Learning Cycle

The Learning Styles

Features of Good Instruction

• Employees need to know the objectives

• Employees need meaningful training content

• Employees need opportunities to practice

• Employees need a number of pre-practice conditions

• Employees need practice involving experience

• Massed vs. spaced practice

• Whole vs. part practice

• Effective practice conditions

Employees Need to Commit Training Content to Memory

Characteristics for a Positive Climate for Learning and Transfer of Training

• Employees need feedback

• Employees learn through observation, experience, and interaction

• Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and arranged

• Encourage trainee responsibility and self-management

• Ensure that the work environment supports learning and transfer

Appendix

Promoting a Learning orientation

Alderfer’s Theory

Existence

• physical needs such as food, clothing , and shelter

Relatedness

• interpersonal needs in personal and professional settings

Growth

• needs for personal development

McClelland’s Theory

Need for achievement

• need to achieve challenging goals, prove something, and recognition

Need for power

• need to dominate and influence others

Need for affiliation

• need to be a part of something and desire for social relationships

Needs Theory Implications

Trainers should attempt to understand learners’ needs, explain how training will meet needs, and adapt training

If certain basic needs are not met, motivation may suffer

However, training should not necessarily attempt to meet all needs

Adult Learning Theory Implications

• Mutual planning and collaboration

• Use learner experiences for examples and applications

• Develop instruction based on learners’ interests and competencies

• Provide opportunities for application

• Ensure training is problem centered

Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory proposes that information taken in by the learner undergoes several transformations in the brain

A message is received by the senses, is registered, stored in short-term memory, transformed to long-term memory, and a response to the message is organized

The final link in the model is feedback from the environment

Promoting Transfer for Closed Skills

• Provide detailed checklists to follow

• Provide high-fidelity practice

• Shape favorable attitudes toward compliance

• Reward compliance

Promoting Transfer for Open Skills

• Teach general principles

• Shape favorable attitudes toward experimentation

• Allow trainees to make mistakes without fear of punishment

• Provide rewards for experimentation

Employees Need to Know The Objectives

An objective may have three components

• What the learner is expected to do or know

• Quality or level of acceptable performance

• Conditions under which the learner is expected to perform

Employees need Meaningful Content

Content should be linked to current job experiences and tasks that have meaning

Material should be presented using familiar concepts, terms, and examples

Content should be aligned with personal and professional goals

Employees Need Opportunities to Practice

Practice should:

• involve the trainee actively

• include overlearning

• take the appropriate amount of time

• include the appropriate unit of learning

Employees Need a Number of Pre-Practice Conditions

• Provide strategies that will result in the greatest learning

• Encourage trainees to reflect

• Provide advanced organizers

• Help trainees set challenging learning goals

• Create realistic expectations for trainees

• For training in teams, clarify roles and responsibilities

Employees Need Practice Involving Experience

• Learners need practice involving direct experience

• Over learning is needed

• Incorporate errors in the learning process

  • … and teach individuals how to learn from them

Massed vs. Spaced Practice

Massed practice involves practicing continuously without rest, with spaced practice individuals are given rest intervals within the practice session

In general, spaced practice is superior

Whole vs. Part Practice

Whole practice involves focusing on all tasks at the same time

Part practice involves practicing each component as soon as it is introduced in training

Trainers should incorporate both types

Boosters

Boosters refer to retrieval opportunities that help the learner’s brain consider training information as important and help retain it

Boosters can include short multiple choice, short-answer quizzes, or other activites that require learners to retrieve what they have learned from long-term memory

Microlearning

Microlearning refers to training delivered in small pieces or chunks to engage trainees, motivate them to learn, and help facilitate retention

Chunks of learning are presented using videos or games spanning 5 to 8 minutes

Used to replace longer training and to supplement formal training

Employees Need Feedback

Feedback should be specific and should follow the behavior as closely as possible

Feedback can come from a variety of sources, such as through interpersonal interactions, video recordings, tests and quizzes, on-the-job observation, and performance data

Employee Learn Through Observation, Experience, and Interaction

Individuals learn through observation and imitating the actions of models

Trainers should promote three key types of interaction:

• Learner-content - task completed alone

• Learner-instructor - interaction between the learner and the expert (trainer) - best for in-depth topics

• Learner-learner - task completed in a group

Employees Need The Training Program to be Properly Coordinated and Arranged

Training administration is important

• Communicate courses to employees

• Prepare instructional materials

• Arrange the training facility and room

• Test equipment that will be used

• Provide support during instruction

• Distribute evaluation materials

Encourage Trainee Responsibility and Self-management

Self-management refers to a person’s attempt to control aspects of decision making and behavior

Self-management training involves setting goals to use skills on the job, identifying obstacles and ways to overcome them, and self-administering rewards

Ensure a Supportive Work Environment

Characteristics of a positive climate for transfer include:

• Supervisors and coworkers encourage transfer

• task cues to use new skills

• Lack of punishment for using new skills

• Extrinsic reinforcement consequences

• Intrinsic reinforcement consequences

Consider Both Internal and External Conditions

Internal conditions are processes within the learner that are necessary for learning

External conditions are processes in the learning environment that are necessary for learning

External conditions should directly influence forms of instruction, and they should be designed to facilitate the internal conditions

Exam 2

Chapter 5 - Program Design

Objectives

1. Explain the program design elements.

2. Prepare for instruction using a curriculum road map, lesson plan, design document, and concept map.

3. Make recommendations about what managers can do before, during, and after training to facilitate learning and transfer.

4. Identify different ways to manage knowledge and the conditions necessary for employees to share knowledge.

The Training Design Process

The Importance of Program Design

• Program design refers to the organization and coordination of training

• Program design is the heart of effective training because it directly influences knowledge and skill acquisition

• Programs must be carefully designed to ensure maximum learning

The Program Design Process

The Training Room

Create an environment conducive to learning—there are a number of details to consider

• Noise

• Colors

• Room Structure

• Lighting

• Wall & floor covering

• Chairs

• Glare

• Ceiling

• Electrical outlets

• Acoustics

• Technology

Types of Classroom Seating

Fan-Type: Trainees can easily switch from listening to practicing in groups.

Classroom-Type: Appropriate when lecture and audiovisual presentations are the primary methods.

Conference-Type: Appropriate for total group discussions.

Horseshoe-Type: Appropriate for both presentation and total group instruction.

Choosing Trainers

• Trainers need to be both skilled in the subject matter at hand and in program facilitation

• Given that trainers are central to learning experience, great care should be taken when selecting outside vendors

Preparation of Materials

• Know content very well

• Use mental and physical rehearsal to build your confidence and assess your strengths and areas for improvement

• Observe master trainers to get new ideas

• Design the training from the audience’s perspective—ask “So what?”

How Should Yo