Untitled Flashcards Set

Unit 1: Chemistry of Life

1.1: Structure of Water + Hydrogen Bonding

• Water’s electronegativity and polarity allows hydrogen bonding

• Properties of water that result from Hydrogen Bonding

  • Adhesion: Allows water molecules to stick to other substances (Ex: how water moves up the xylem in plants

  • Cohesion: Water’s ability to stick to itself 

  • High Heat Capacity: Allows water to retain its temperature & effective heat transfer, making it easier to buffer extreme temperatures and climate

  • Density: Water is less dense when frozen

1.2: Elements of Life

• The major elements of life: Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, Nitrogen

• Carbon is the building block of life

  • 4 valence electrons

  • Used to form every macromolecule

1.3-1.5: Biological Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates

  • Disaccharides formed from monosaccharides like glucose from dehydration synthesis, and broken down by hydrolysis

  • Disaccharides form polysaccharides: a long chain of monosaccharides

  • Used for energy and stored as starch in plants, and glycogen in animals. If the body is at max glycogen capacity, it’s turned into triglycerides.

  • Cellulose: provides structural support in plants and cannot be broken down by hydrolysis due to its bond arrangement 

• Lipids

  • Non polar and makes up triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols

  • Saturated fats cannot have double bonds and are solid at room temperature because of the tight hydrogen packing, while unsaturated fat can double bond and is liquid at room temp.

  • Phospholipids: Amphipathic and make up the cell membrane

• Proteins

  • Forms enzymes 

  • Made up of a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a variable R group that determines the properties of the amino acid

  • The free carboxyl group bonds to the amino group

  • (1): Primary structure: Which order amino acids are bonded together

  • (2): Secondary structure: Alpha and Beta helices with hydrogen bonding in the middle

  • (3) Tertiary structure: The R groups interact with each other, causing folding

  • (4) Quaternary structure: An arrangement of multiple protein chains held together by hydrogen bonds

1.6: Nucleic Acids

• DNA

  • Monomer: Nucleotides

  • Made up of antiparallel strands with alternating 5’ and 3’ ends

  • Contains a phosphate group, deoxyribose, and nitrogenous base

  • The base sequence forms DNA’s structure and happens because of hydrogen bonds

• RNA

  • Monomer: Nucleotides

  • Uracil instead of Thymine

  • Made up of ribose instead of Deoxyribose

Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

2.1-2.2: Organelles

• Nucleus: The double-membraned control center of the cell 

• Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis

• Lysosomes (Animal Cells Only): Breaks down waste and helps with apoptosis

• Endoplasmic Reticulum: The “highway of the cell” helping with mechanical function

  • Rough: Makes proteins

  • Smooth: makes lipids and breaks down toxins

• Mitochondria: Produces ATP and energy

• Centriole: aids in cell division

• Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and has 3 filaments with a link to ALS 

• Golgi Apparatus: packages, modifies, and transports proteins and lipids w/ vesicles

• Chloroplasts: Thylakoids and Stroma, converts light into sugar

2.3 Cell Size

• A cell’s surface area and volume affects their ability for resources and energy

• Smaller cell= a bigger surface area to volume ratio

• The surface area needs to be big enough to supply the cell with nutrients

• Microvilli are used by cells to increase the surface area without increasing volume

2.4-2.5: Plasma Membrane

• The plasma membrane is amphipathic, flexible, and maintains homeostasis by controlling what goes in and out of the cell

• Small, non polar molecules can easily pass through while large polar molecules and ions cannot

• Water passes through aquaporins (protein channels), allowing a cell to change it’s permeability 

• Integral proteins cross the whole membrane while peripheral proteins stay outside

2.6-2.7, 2,9: Membrane Transport

• Simple diffusion: natural diffusion of small, nonpolar molecules into the cell

• Passive transport: Doesn’t require ATP, moves high to low concentration

• Facilitated diffusion: Molecules that can’t pass through naturally diffuse through a transmembrane protein (high to low)

• Active transport: Uses ATP to move ions across a concentration gradient from low to high concentration (ex: sodium-potassium pump)

2.8: Tonicity

• Hypotonic: low concentration

• Hypertonic: high concentration

• Water moves by osmosis from a low to high concentration. 

• A carrot placed in water will swell because the carrot has a higher solute concentration than the water

• A carrot placed in salt water will shrink because salt water has a higher concentration than the carrot

2.10: Cell Compartmentalization

• Cells have membranes to separate their internal environments from their external environments

• This allows metabolic reactions to occur, ensures efficient reactions and minimizes competing interactions in different organelles 

2.11: Endosymbiosis Theory

• Theory that a prokaryote was engulfed by a eukaryotic cell through endocytosis, and their relationship was symbiotic, causing the cell to continue to evolve like that.

• Evidence of this comes from double membraned organelles such as chloroplasts and the mitochondriaUnit 1: Chemistry of Life

  1.1: Structure of Water + Hydrogen Bonding

  • Water’s electronegativity and polarity allows hydrogen bonding

  • Properties of water that result from Hydrogen Bonding

    • Adhesion: Allows water molecules to stick to other substances (Ex: how water moves up the xylem in plants

    • Cohesion: Water’s ability to stick to itself 

    • High Heat Capacity: Allows water to retain its temperature & effective heat transfer, making it easier to buffer extreme temperatures and climate

    • Density: Water is less dense when frozen

  
  

  1.2: Elements of Life

  • The major elements of life: Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon, Nitrogen

  • Carbon is the building block of life

    • 4 valence electrons

    • Used to form every macromolecule

  
  

  1.3-1.5: Biological Macromolecules

  • Carbohydrates

    • Disaccharides formed from monosaccharides like glucose from dehydration synthesis, and broken down by hydrolysis

    • Disaccharides form polysaccharides: a long chain of monosaccharides

    • Used for energy and stored as starch in plants, and glycogen in animals. If the body is at max glycogen capacity, it’s turned into triglycerides.

    • Cellulose: provides structural support in plants and cannot be broken down by hydrolysis due to its bond arrangement 

  • Lipids

    • Non polar and makes up triglycerides, phospholipids, and sterols

    • Saturated fats cannot have double bonds and are solid at room temperature because of the tight hydrogen packing, while unsaturated fat can double bond and is liquid at room temp.

    • Phospholipids: Amphipathic and make up the cell membrane

  
  

  • Proteins

    • Forms enzymes 

    • Made up of a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a variable R group that determines the properties of the amino acid

    • The free carboxyl group bonds to the amino group

    • (1): Primary structure: Which order amino acids are bonded together

    • (2): Secondary structure: Alpha and Beta helices with hydrogen bonding in the middle

    • (3) Tertiary structure: The R groups interact with each other, causing folding

    • (4) Quaternary structure: An arrangement of multiple protein chains held together by hydrogen bonds

  
  

  1.6: Nucleic Acids

  • DNA

    • Monomer: Nucleotides

    • Made up of antiparallel strands with alternating 5’ and 3’ ends

    • Contains a phosphate group, deoxyribose, and nitrogenous base

    • The base sequence forms DNA’s structure and happens because of hydrogen bonds

  • RNA

    • Monomer: Nucleotides

    • Uracil instead of Thymine

    • Made up of ribose instead of Deoxyribose

  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  

  Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

  2.1-2.2: Organelles

  • Nucleus: The double-membraned control center of the cell 

  • Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis

  • Lysosomes (Animal Cells Only): Breaks down waste and helps with apoptosis

  • Endoplasmic Reticulum: The “highway of the cell” helping with mechanical function

    • Rough: Makes proteins

    • Smooth: makes lipids and breaks down toxins

  • Mitochondria: Produces ATP and energy

  • Centriole: aids in cell division

  • Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and has 3 filaments with a link to ALS 

  • Golgi Apparatus: packages, modifies, and transports proteins and lipids w/ vesicles

  • Chloroplasts: Thylakoids and Stroma, converts light into sugar

  
  

  2.3 Cell Size

  • A cell’s surface area and volume affects their ability for resources and energy

  • Smaller cell= a bigger surface area to volume ratio

  • The surface area needs to be big enough to supply the cell with nutrients

  • Microvilli are used by cells to increase the surface area without increasing volume

  
  

  2.4-2.5: Plasma Membrane

  • The plasma membrane is amphipathic, flexible, and maintains homeostasis by controlling what goes in and out of the cell

  • Small, non polar molecules can easily pass through while large polar molecules and ions cannot

  • Water passes through aquaporins (protein channels), allowing a cell to change it’s permeability 

  • Integral proteins cross the whole membrane while peripheral proteins stay outside

  
  

  2.6-2.7, 2,9: Membrane Transport

  • Simple diffusion: natural diffusion of small, nonpolar molecules into the cell

  • Passive transport: Doesn’t require ATP, moves high to low concentration

  • Facilitated diffusion: Molecules that can’t pass through naturally diffuse through a transmembrane protein (high to low)

  • Active transport: Uses ATP to move ions across a concentration gradient from low to high concentration (ex: sodium-potassium pump)

  
  

  2.8: Tonicity

  • Hypotonic: low concentration

  • Hypertonic: high concentration

  • Water moves by osmosis from a low to high concentration. 

  • A carrot placed in water will swell because the carrot has a higher solute concentration than the water

  • A carrot placed in salt water will shrink because salt water has a higher concentration than the carrot

  2.10: Cell Compartmentalization

  • Cells have membranes to separate their internal environments from their external environments

  • This allows metabolic reactions to occur, ensures efficient reactions and minimizes competing interactions in different organelles 

  
  

  2.11: Endosymbiosis Theory

  • Theory that a prokaryote was engulfed by a eukaryotic cell through endocytosis, and their relationship was symbiotic, causing the cell to continue to evolve like that.