6-2 Police Organization & Field Operations (A,B,C,D,E, & F)
6-2 Police Organization and Field Operations
Andrew Kisela, a police officer at the University of Arizona, was involved in a noteworthy incident where he shot an unarmed woman, leading to his placement on administrative leave during the investigation of the shooting. His administrative leave serves as a standard bureaucratic response in law enforcement following an officer-involved shooting, allowing for proper investigation and enabling the officer to recuperate from potentially traumatic experiences.
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Learning Objective 1: Understand the purpose of administrative leave.
Administrative leave is a procedural step taken by law enforcement agencies after a shooting incident. It does not imply guilt or improper conduct by the officer but is instead a protocol that respects both the need for a comprehensive investigation and the mental health of the officer involved. This reflects law enforcement's commitment to due process.
Bureaucracy in Law Enforcement
Bureaucracies are characterized by formal rules and structures that govern the interactions of individuals within the organization. This may include protocols for reporting incidents, administrative responses to officer conduct, and frameworks for oversight and accountability.
The overarching goal of any bureaucracy, including police departments, is to achieve maximum efficiency.
For police departments, this efficiency translates to providing optimal service to the community while adhering to constraints like budgetary limits and staffing.
Learning Objective 2: Learn about police organizational structures.
While many police departments continue to adhere to a traditional hierarchical structure, where decision-making is centralized, there is an emerging trend towards more collaborative structures.
In partnership-based models, there tends to be more input from officers on the front lines, fostering a cooperative environment between management and field officers.
However, the hierarchical model remains dominant in the majority of police agencies across the country.
Conclusion
Understanding police organization and field operations is crucial for effective community policing and resource management. The handling of incidents like that involving Andrew Kisela highlights the importance of maintaining procedures that ensure accountability, support, and efficiency within law enforcement agencies.
This lesson illustrates the balance that law enforcement must strike between operational efficiency and community service, while navigating the complexities of bureaucracy and officer welfare.
6-2a The Structure of the Police Department
Police departments are structured based on several factors:
Size of jurisdiction
Type of crimes addressed
Demographics of the population served
Example units demonstrate this adaptability:
The Metropolitan Police Department of Washington, D.C. operates an Asian Liaison Unit focused on the Asian community.
The Evansville, Indiana Police Department has established a task force dedicated to combating methamphetamine-related crime.
Geographic Influence on Police Organization
Geographic location significantly shapes police department structure:
The San Diego Police Department has a Harbor Patrol Unit tailored to its coastal environment.
In contrast, the Grand Forks Police Department uses a snowmobile patrol, which would not be applicable in Southern California.
Chain of Command
All police departments require a clear rank structure for proper function:
Accountability is essential to maintain order within the ranks.
Historically, police reformers aimed to reduce political corruption, leading to a more militaristic organization of police to ensure strict adherence to command.
In a typical police department, the hierarchical chain of command is as follows:
Chief of Police
Deputy Chief
Assistant Chief
Captain
Lieutenant
Sergeant
Patrol Officers and Detectives
Delegation of Authority:
Authority is delegated from the Chief of Police to division chiefs and subsequently to commanders.
This structure ensures that each member is accountable to a superior, promoting discipline and control.
Span of Control
The optimal number of subordinates for a police sergeant is between eight to ten patrol officers.
If the number of subordinates increases beyond fifteen, management effectiveness tends to decline.
Organizing by Area and Time
Metropolitan areas divide police responsibilities into:
Beats: the smallest patrol area for officers.
Precincts: a collection of beats, often led by a precinct commander (captain).
Police schedules are typically organized into:**
Three eight-hour shifts, categorized as:
Night Shift: Midnight to 8 AM
Day Shift: 8 AM to 4 PM
Evening Shift: 4 PM to Midnight
Officers may alternate shifts monthly or maintain a fixed schedule to manage work-life balance.
Law Enforcement in the Field
The effectiveness of police departments hinges on the efficient organization of field services, which include:
Patrol activities
Investigations
Special operations
Most police officers are generalists, responsible for multiple functions within their assigned beats.
Larger departments may feature specialized units focused on specific crimes (e.g., illegal drugs, white-collar crime), while smaller departments generally operate with general patrol officers.
Every police department has a patrol unit, constituting typically the largest division within the department, comprising over two-thirds of sworn officers authorized to make arrests and use force in local police departments across the U.S.
Patrol officers face various challenges daily; hence, on-the-job experience becomes invaluable. As noted by a patrol officer:
"You never stop learning. You never get your street degree."
This emphasizes the continuous learning nature of police work, where adapting to street situations is crucial.
6-2b Police on Patrol: The Backbone of the Department
Learning Objective 2: List the three primary purposes of police patrol.
The basic purposes of police patrol have evolved little since Sir Robert Peel established modern policing in 1829 and include:
Deterrence of Crime:
Maintaining a visible police presence to deter criminal activities.
Maintenance of Public Order:
Ensuring a sense of security and orderliness in the community.
Provision of Non-Crime Services:
The role of police can be controversial, as these non-criminal duties can occupy patrol officers’ time.
Community Concerns
A study on 26,000 police calls reveals that only one in five calls pertains to criminal activity. This highlights the high volume of non-crime incidents that patrol officers handle.
Data from the Albuquerque Police Department shows a breakdown of calls for service:
Traffic-related calls: 37%
Suspicious persons: 13%
Public disorder: 13%
Property crime: 9%
Violent crime: 5%
House alarm: 5%
Auto theft: 2%
Hang up calls: 1%
Unknown/other: 15%
The debate surrounding community services dominating patrol duties raises the question of who will manage these issues if police do not, as they are the available public service 24/7.
Law Enforcement and Mental Illness
Officers frequently encounter individuals with mental health issues during patrol, with studies estimating that 6-10% of police-public contacts involve mentally ill persons.
The risk of death during such encounters is significantly higher for untreated mentally ill individuals—16 times greater than for those without such conditions.
Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) Training
In response, many agencies have implemented CIT training programs designed to:
Help officers identify behavioral cues related to mental illness.
Teach de-escalation strategies to prevent potential forceful confrontations.
Over 3,000 police departments have adopted this crisis intervention approach, which can include:
Law enforcement officers trained in CIT.
Access to mental health professionals available for assistance.
Designated drop-off locations for mental health services, like hospitals.
CIT programs are generally well-received by officers and reportedly result in decreased arrest rates for mentally ill individuals, but resource limitations may affect rural law enforcement agencies.
Patrol Activities
Overall, police patrol objectives focus on crime prevention, deterrence, and providing social services. Different departments use various methods, but routine patrol activities can be categorized as:
Preventive Patrol:
Officers maintain a presence, either on foot or in vehicles, to deter crime. This approach, referred to as "omnipresence," embodies the foundational philosophy of early policing and remains integral to effective patrol strategies.
Calls for Service:
Patrol officers dedicate a significant amount of their time responding to 911 calls, attending to emergencies, and addressing citizen complaints and concerns. This reactive component is essential for community safety and trust in law enforcement.
Administrative Duties:
Officers spend a considerable portion of their shift completing various reports that document their activities and interactions. This includes filling out incident reports for non-criminal incidents, police reports for crimes, and necessary paperwork that supports administrative functions of the department.
Officer-Initiated Activities:
Patrol officers also engage in proactive measures by initiating contact with citizens. This might involve stopping vehicles for traffic violations or interacting with pedestrians to gather information or address suspicious activity. Such preemptive actions are vital for building community relationships and preventing potential crimes.
Community Engagement:
An increasing focus has been placed on community policing efforts, wherein officers attend local events, conduct safety workshops, and engage in dialogue with community members to foster trust and collaboration. This proactive participation enhances the relationship between law enforcement and the public, paving the way for cooperative crime prevention initiatives.
Training and Professional Development:
Routine training sessions and updates regarding new protocols are essential components of a patrol officer's responsibilities. Continuous education enhances their ability to respond effectively in diverse situations, from handling criminal encounters to managing mental health crises.
These various activities highlight the multifaceted role of patrol officers in maintaining public safety while fostering community relations, thereby illustrating the critical nature of patrol operations within policing.
6-2c Detective Investigations
Investigation is the second primary function of police work alongside patrol. While patrol focuses primarily on preventing crime, investigations are reactive, initiated only after a crime has occurred and preliminary information has been gathered by patrol officers.
The responsibility of identifying the suspect, often referred to as "who dunnit," typically falls upon the investigator, commonly known as detectives.
The most common pathway to becoming a detective is through promotion from a patrol officer position.
Detectives have not received as much reform attention compared to patrol officers, primarily because the detectives' job scope is confined to law enforcement tasks, with less involvement in social services and maintaining public order.
Daily Activities of Patrol Officers
Given that the majority of patrol shifts conclude without officers making arrests, numerous other activities occupy their time:
Responding to various calls for service, which might involve traffic incidents, public disorders, and other non-criminal engagements.
Conducting routine community engagement to foster positive relations with citizens and address concerns directly.
Completing necessary documentation, such as incident reports related to non-criminal activities or paperwork supporting department operations.
Reality of the Detective Profession
The portrayal of detectives in media often exaggerates the excitement of their work. In reality, detectives typically devote much of their time investigating standard, everyday crimes like burglaries.
A significant part of a detective's role involves tracking down stolen property rather than pursuing high-profile murder cases.
Preparing cases for trial is a critical and time-consuming aspect of a detective's responsibilities that requires detailed documentation and thorough reports.
Additionally, a landmark study by RAND Corporation revealed that more than 97% of cases deemed "solved" can be traced back to:
Patrol officers making an arrest at the crime scene.
Witnesses or victims identifying the criminal.
Detectives performing routine investigative functions that could be executed by clerical staff.
This insight emphasizes the importance of the patrol unit in the investigative process and highlights the collaborative nature of police work in ensuring effective law enforcement practices.
Detective bureaus have the option of implementing aggressive strategies in investigations to resolve cases efficiently. A notable tactic is conducting "sting" operations, where detectives pose as a buyer of stolen goods. For example, if detectives suspect that an individual was involved in the robbery of a Mercedes-Benz parts warehouse, they might act as a “fence” to lure the suspect into a trap. During the transaction for stolen car parts, authorities gather evidence, which ultimately leads to the suspect's arrest.
Learning Objective 1: Understand the concept of sting operations.
Sting operations serve as a crucial investigative tool when dealing with theft and other criminal activities. These operations are controversial and must be conducted under strict legal guidelines to protect the integrity of law enforcement and the rights of individuals involved.
Undercover Operations
Another aggressive tactic is undercover operations, where law enforcement officers adopt false identities to infiltrate criminal enterprises. This strategy is particularly common in large-scale narcotics operations and organized crime syndicates. The necessity of undercover work arises from the need for direct access to criminal networks, enabling officers to gather critical intelligence that could not be obtained through regular channels. Agencies usually have established protocols to determine when undercover operations are warranted, but a mere suspicion of illegal activity can justify these risky endeavors.
Learning Objective 2: Recognize the role of undercover officers.
Undercover officers provide law enforcement with unique advantages in gathering information directly related to illicit operations. However, these operations can be dangerous and require extensive training and planning to minimize risks to the officers involved and ensure successful outcomes.
Confidential Informants (CIs)
When undercover operations are deemed too risky or impractical, police departments may utilize confidential informants (CIs) as an alternative. A CI is typically a person involved in criminal activity who provides crucial information about illegal operations in exchange for leniency or other benefits. It's estimated that as many as 80 percent of all illegal drug cases in the United States incorporate the assistance of confidential informants.
Advantages of Using CIs: CIs can infiltrate places where police officers may not be able to penetrate easily, facilitating intelligence gathering. According to a police administrator, "They can get us into places we can’t go. Without them, narcotics cases would practically cease to function."
Learning Objective 3: Understand the significance of confidential informants in criminal investigations.
CIs are vital for the success of many investigations, especially in drug-related offenses where access to illicit activities is necessary. Their involvement helps to bolster evidence against suspects, leading to successful prosecutions.
The ultimate goal of all law enforcement activity is to clear a crime, or secure the arrest and prosecution of the offender. A review of clearance rates—which indicate the percentage of reported crimes that have been cleared—reveals a sobering reality: investigations are successful only part of the time.
According to the FBI, 61% of homicides and 46% of total violent crimes are solved,
In contrast, police clear only 17% of property crimes.
The varying clearance rates for different crimes largely reflect the resources that law enforcement agencies devote to each type of crime. Typically, a more vigorous investigation occurs for serious offenses such as murder or rape compared to property crimes like automobile or computer theft.
6-2e Clearance Rates and Cold Cases
Clearance rates are critical for assessing the effectiveness of law enforcement in managing crime. These rates highlight the intricacies of criminal investigations, revealing that despite extensive efforts, many crimes remain unsolved. Low clearance rates can lead to the accumulation of cold cases—investigations that have not been resolved within a specific timeframe.
The definition of a cold case varies among police departments, but generally, a cold case is one that is considered "somewhat old"—not too new to give hope of resolution, yet past the point where active investigation is ongoing.
Cold Cases and Their Investigation
Cold cases are often a significant burden on police departments and are characterized by a lack of leads and evidence to effectively pursue a resolution. The challenges in solving cold cases are compounded by time, which can diminish the quality of evidence and the availability of witnesses.
Despite advancements in forensic technology that may aid in the resolution of cold cases, success remains elusive. A RAND Corporation study indicates that only about 1 in 20 cold cases results in an arrest and merely 1 in 100 results in a conviction.
Learning Objective 2: Recognize the Challenges of Cold Cases
The difficulty in solving cold cases stems from several factors:
Decline in leads over time: As time progresses, valuable evidence may no longer be available. Witnesses may forget significant details or may no longer be reachable.
Resource allocation: Police departments often prioritize open and more solvable cases due to limited resources, leaving cold cases languishing without attention.
Public interest and funding: Media attention or public interest can sometimes renew focus on cold cases, leading to additional resources or new leads.
Conclusion
Understanding clearance rates and cold cases is vital for comprehending the realities of law enforcement work. As evidenced by low clearance rates and the persistence of cold cases, the policing environment is fraught with challenges. The statistics provided highlight not only the difficulties inherent in criminal investigations but also the critical need for continuous improvement in investigative techniques and resource allocation to ensure justice for victims and their families.
6-2f Forensic Investigations and DNA
Forensic investigations utilize science and technology to investigate crimes.
Provides crucial information to law enforcement regarding:
Cause of death or injury.
Time of death or injury.
Weapons used.
Identity of the victim or offender.
Police rely on forensic experts for analysis of evidence found at crime scenes.
Crime Scene Forensics
First law enforcement officer at a crime scene must prevent contamination of evidence.
Examples of trace evidence include:
Hairs, fibers, blood, fingerprints, broken glass, and footprints.
Importance of trace evidence:
Linking evidence to suspects significantly increases conviction rates according to a study by the National Institute of Justice.
Collection of ballistic evidence includes:
Bullets and spent cartridge casings to assist in determining shooter distance and potential weapon used.
Access to the National Integrated Ballistic Information Network for comparisons.
Fingerprint Reliability
Human fingerprints are unique, making them vital for identification over centuries.
A match is usually determined by comparison of 8-16 points of similarity.
Limitations:
Obtaining quality prints can be challenging.
Instances of wrongful conviction due to faulty fingerprinting practices.
Careers in Criminal Justice: Forensic Scientists
Example of Martha Blake, a forensic scientist:
Career path influenced by early interest in science and criminalistics.
Job responsibilities include testifying in court about evidence and findings.
Required Training for Forensic Scientists:
Bachelor’s degree in science (chemistry, biology, etc.)
Certification for specialization typically requiring two additional years of study.
Salary range: $37,000-$96,000 based on position and experience.
The DNA Revolution
Emergence of DNA fingerprinting in mid-1990s, becoming the preferred method in many investigations.
Learning Objective 3: Forensic experts use DNA fingerprinting to:
Gather DNA samples from crime scenes (blood, skin, etc.)
Compare suspect DNA with evidence from crime scenes to identify connections.
Assess the odds of matches based on genetic markers—high match probability suggests a strong case.
DNA in Action
Historical examples of DNA linking cold cases:
Joseph Zieler, linked to a double murder from 1990 by matching DNA from a DNA database.
Cold hits are achieved when DNA from a crime scene matches profiles in databases such as CODIS.
CODIS has yielded over 545,000 cold hits as of 2020, showing its effectiveness.
New Developments in DNA Technology
Innovations continue in DNA fingerprinting:
Touch DNA allows for searching scrapes of objects for genetic material.
Rapid DNA processing reduces evidence processing time to 90 minutes.
Genetic profiling or phenotyping can offer physical descriptions of unknown suspects.
DNA Collection Policies
Mandatory collection of DNA from all felony offenders in all states.
More than half of states collect DNA from arrested individuals prior to conviction.
Related legal considerations stemming from cases like Maryland v. King, which validated the practice of taking DNA from arrested suspects for identification purposes.
Landmark Cases: Maryland v. King
Supreme Court ruling in 2013 upheld the collection of DNA from arrestees, stating it is a valid identification technique similar to fingerprinting.
Addressed privacy concerns and the implications for law enforcement practices.
Forward-Looking Forensics
Technology is advancing rapidly in forensics. Future capabilities could allow:
Determination of fingerprint origin date and suspect characteristics (age, gender).
Broader biometric techniques beyond fingerprints including facial recognition and digital evidence collection.
Cyber forensics examines mobile device data for clues in criminal investigations, revealing user activity and more.